The Strength of Weak Ties by Granovetter | Review

The Strength of Weak Ties by Granovetter | Review This paper is a critical review of the popular article The Strength of Weak Ties by Mark S. Granovetter (1973). After an introduction to the paper at hand and a summary of the texts main points, a closer look at some of the premises on which the author builds his arguments is taken as well as examining the arguments themselves. Followed by that, the articles major contributions to the field of civic networks and social capital and its importance in this realm especially for the contemporary society are examined. Finally, I will conclude by summing up the points and highlighting the significance of the article. Introduction Mark S. Granovetters article The Strength of Weak Ties (1973) is one of the highly influential and most cited works of our times. By emphasizing a part of social networks which had hitherto been neglected, the author clearly caused a stir (not only) within the scientific community of sociology and social sciences. Granovetter is a contemporary sociologist and professor in the school of humanities and sciences at Stanford University. His main fields of interest are Economic Sociology, Social Stratification and Sociological Theory. Contributing to these realms, he published several articles and books. Here, we will focus on the input he gives through the paper cited above. Summary In his renowned and influential paper The Strength of Weak Ties (1973), Mark Granovetter makes a basic distinction between the respective functions of strong and weak ties and points especially to the importance of the latter. He defines the strength of a tie by the combination of time spent together, the emotional intensity, the intimacy and the reciprocal services (p. 1361) present in a particular relationship. He states that the stronger a tie between two individuals, the higher is the proportion of common friends due to three main factors: the time committed to each of ones friendships, similarities that connect friends and the logic of Heiders cognitive balance theory which serves as explanation why the combination of a positive relationship between person A and person B as well as between A and person C will most probably result in a positive relationship between B and C (1958). Concluding from these statements, he points out that only weak ties connect one group of people (fri ends) and another, as strong ties already imply an overlap between two groups. Relationships that are the only connecting point between two groups are bridges or if a tie is not the only but the shortest connection between members of different groups local bridges (p.1364). According to Granovetter, in the process of diffusion of e.g. new ideas or concepts these bridges play an essential role as they allow for the spread of an idea from one group to another. The author presents a set of studies that demonstrate how new ideas spread (most rapidly) through people with few strong but several weak ties. This seems to be especially so if the idea introduced is rather unconventional and deviating from a certain norm and the spread of which requires a considerable degree of freedom from peer pressure. After clarifying the overall importance of weak ties, Granovetter takes a closer look at their significance on two levels: the individual and the community level. He explains that for the individual, the maintenance of weak ties (e.g. former working colleagues) is crucial as those are usually bridges that provide access to groups of people and to information that one would otherwise not be able to obtain. For the community, on the other hand, bridges are essential in order to prevent pure clique building which would inhibit community cohesion and hinder collective action. Weaknesses of the argumentation Not without any reason is Granovetters The Strength of Weak Ties considered a highly influential and important paper. In contrast to many other sociologists writing about social theories or social capital, Granovetter makes a clear distinction between interpersonal (strong ties) and mere transaction (weak ties) relationships and he adheres with it throughout his argument an important step that many sociological argumentations around social capital lack. There are, however, a number of weaknesses in his argument which I will outline in the following. One of the premises he builds his argument on, is that the proportion of overlapping friendship circles of two individual is related to the strength of these individuals tie. Thus, a weak relationship between two people implies that there are only few common friends or acquaintances. This, however, does not have to be true. Take former class mates as an example: Person A and person B were class mates several years ago, but nowadays they are only in loose contact, they thus have a weak tie. However, each of them does have an approximately equally strong tie to most of the people from the former class. Hence, there is an overlap of acquaintances even though they are only very weakly bonded to each other. Furthermore, a friendship that developed over a longer period of time may remain a very strong one even if the two individuals involved do not see each other frequently anymore. This would then imply that there is a strong tie between the two friends but obviously not very much overlap of their friendship circles where they live. This facet becomes ever more important with new communication technologies evolving, which facilitate keeping contact despite spatial separation, and the general globalization which leads to ever more people changing their location more easily and more frequently. Hence, the definition of the strength of a tie, though quite precise at first sight, does not cover every kind of tie and is thus not completely comprehensive. Another premise Granovetter states is that due to the similarity which friends usually share it is very likely that if person A is a friend of person B and of person C, then B and C do become friends, too. If one always chooses ones friends because they have much in common can be doubted, though. Not without cause is the proverb opposites attract so well known and often used. Often people tend to feel comfortable around someone that is different in his personality and character, this being an anti-pole to ones own weaknesses and strengths. Thus, the similarity that the author implies here rather refers to sharing an interest in or commitment to something, be it in the labour world or common hobbies. However, if A likes B because of their perpetual discussions about politics and A is a friend of C because of their shared passion for soccer, B and C are not necessarily likely to build a deep friendship as well. When writing strong ties lead to overall fragmentation (p.1378), Granovetter clearly underestimates the importance of strong ties. His paper is unique in emphasizing a thitherto neglected part of human interaction. Nevertheless, strong ties build the basis for any kind of trust to evolve, which again is a main component of social capital and community cohesion. A person who does not have any intimate relationships will have a hard time trusting people. Now, one could state that everyone is bonded in at least one strong relationship and hence, this remark is redundant. However, nowadays the number of weak ties people have is increasing steadily as online platforms such as facebook allow for an easy way of handling the climbing number of relationships. Still, these relationships do demand some input to remain present and thus it can be questioned if people still invest in their strong ties or if the number and intensity of friendships is declining in recent years. What one can be sure about, though, is that for community cohesion to evolve and remain, both weak and strong ties are needed, rather that seeing strong ties as a threat to social cohesion. Last, one can question if the generalization of the importance of weak ties is legitimate. It may, very well be the case that they facilitate the spread and diffusion of and thus gives access to information that one could otherwise not obtain. This function (enhancement of diffusion) is, however, one that does not require reliance on the vis-ÃÆ'ÂÂ  -vis one interacts with. Take the example of an old colleague telling a person about a job offer. This widens the job seekers horizon but he does not have to rely on this single job offer. Here, weak ties fulfil their function beautifully. As soon as something is at stake, though, one has to doubt that people would still make extensive usage of weak ties. Here, they would rather rely on someone they know and well enough to be sure that he can be trusted. This holds true not only for interpersonal issues but also in a mere trade relation. Strengths and contributions of the article Nevertheless, one can not possibly question the importance of this article. One major contribution is a solution to the threat of an in-group bias that may occur: As recently found out in a study by Hooghe, Reeskens, Stolle and Tappers, generalized trust, which furthers social cohesion and is a core component of social capital, develops more easily and in greater amplitude within homogenous groups whereas heterogeneity of a group decreases it (2009). These findings bring along some troublesome issues: How can collective action and social cohesion take place in heterogeneous societies? Naturally, heterogeneous groups will divide into subgroups which can lead to fragmentation. With the linkages, the bridges, between these groups, the threat of fragmentation and a resulting lack of participation in public life can be allayed. Furthermore, it clearly gives the basis for several important publications not only in the fields of civic networks and social capital. Richard Floridas The Rise of the Creative Class (2002), for example, explains the crucial importance of the spread of information through weak ties for the facilitation of creativity in the labour sector. This is just a representative of the many contemporary influential theories that build on Granovetters paper. The Strength of Weak Ties contributes to the discussion around the concept of social capital not only by making a clear distinction between different types of ties (as stated above already) but also by showing how weak ties can be a connecting point between leaders and a group and the resulting trust and participation in the leadership and by emphasizing the significance of the spread of information which can ultimately lead to collective action and the involvement of the majority of a society in public matters. Finally, as already shortly mentioned above, Granovetters stress on weak ties does not become outdated by new findings although the publication lays more than 35 years in the past. In contrast, it should acquire even more importance by the introduction of new technologies and online platforms that alleviate the maintenance of a vast number of loose relationships, even bridging great distances. This trend is crucial for understanding nowadays (Western) societies and hence, for many fields of sociology and social sciences. Conclusion Considering the points made above, one can clearly state that the publication is a basic contribution in civic networks theory despite the weaknesses it may have. There are scholars that tend to favour strong ties and disregard the significance of weak ties such as Robert Putnam foremost in his book Bowling Alone (2000). This only makes Granovetters article more important providing an anti-pole to such neglect. Even though there are flaws in the argumentation and the premises on which the approach is built, those are minor ones. Furthermore, Granovetter states himself that his work is a limited, basic one that is a fragment of a theory (p. 1378). He does not claim to offer a comprehensive and elaborated concept that does not need further improvement. As part of a theory and by drawing the attention to an entirely neglected part of human interaction, it paves the way for further research in this direction. Granovetter, hence, managed to contribute greatly to several fields of research and this piece of work will not loose significance in the future as it is the basis further studies and will not be replaced by those.

And Then There Were None :: essays research papers

Agatha Christie's And Then There Were None, published by Washington Square Press, is regarded by most critics to be her masterpiece. After publishing almost eighty books, this was the one she was truly most proud of. Why? Mainly, because critics have quoted it to have sold more copies than Shakespeare and the Bible. However, Christie has so much more to be proud of in this novel. With an outstanding mystery/murder plot, combined with a dark, cryptic setting involving many deranged guests; one can see she has accomplished a lot in this novel.Ten guests are invited to a mysterious island called "Indian Island". Each guest was sent invitations that were signed by people they had met before. Once the visitors arrived at the island and were aquatinted with each other, they found out that their host, U.N. Owen, (Unknown) had not arrived yet. At dinner, a strange voice was heard, accusing each of them of a murder, and which they were all guilty of. This is the rising action of the story. One by one each guest is killed off by the anonymous murderer according to a famous nursery rhyme. As more people are killed off, one by one, the group narrows the suspect list down. Hence defining the classic "Who Done It?" mystery novel.The Characters in And Then There Were None are the ones who make the book come to life. Because this novel follows the "Who Done It" theme, there are the few obvious characters. 1) The inspector, always trying to get an accusation across as to who the murderer is(of course never correct). 2) The doctor, Devon Island's answer to the question nobody ever asked. 3) The old married couple (Mr. + Mrs. Rogers), always passionate to others, until a guest discovers an eerie secret. 4) The murderer (Justice Wargrave), finally the one guest that is portrait as the most obvious, until he dies (then comes back to life). This person always remains discrete until the last moment where he reveals that he is a rampaging, psychopathic, cold blooded killer. 5) The innocent victims, of course, what story is complete without the sad tales of innocent live being slaughtered. One or two of these characters are always the ones who you first expect, and are always at the scene of the crime...how convenient.And Then There Were None is indeed one of the best books I have read.

Differences between Iroquois and Pueblo Indians Essay

Mercantilism: Economic practice common in Europe from the 16th to the 18th century. British and other imperial power’s policy to regulate the economy of their colonies. The policy prohibited the colonies to trade with other nations, monopolizing markets and banning the export of gold and silver. Mercantilism demanded that a nation must export more than it imports. Mercantilism was a cause of many wars and also the expansion of colonization. William Penn: English real state entrepreneur, philosopher and founder of the Province of Pennsylvania. Penn was born on October 14th, 1644 and died in July 30th 1718. As a Quaker, he was a supporter of religious freedom and democracy. As a result of his different religious views in England, he was expelled from the church. In 1677, he became one of the founding fathers of the city of Philadelphia helping in its planning and development. Quakers (Society of Friends): the Quakers lived in the mid 17th century in England. Many who did not want to follow the Christian Church because they had different spiritual and religious beliefs formed the group. They believed in their â€Å"inner light†, which they believed to come directly from God. In order to follow their beliefs comfortably Quakers immigrated to America in the 1680’s. There they established in Rhode Island and Pennsylvania which tolerated Quakers. Metacom: also called Metacomet, King Philip, or Philip of Pokanoket, was an intertribal leader of the Wampanoag and Narraganset. He was born in 1639 and died on the 12th august, 1676. He assumed the position of leader of the clan after his father Massasoit died and his older brother the following year. He became the leader of the Wampanoag in King Philip’s War against English colonists in New England. Glorious Revolution: also called the Revolution of 1688, resulted in the overthrow of James II and the assent of his daughter Mary II and her Dutch husband, William III of Orange. After the accession of James II in 1685, his acceptance to Roman Catholicism alienated the majority of the population. This led William III to successfully invade England with a Dutch fleet and army, which led him to the English throne. The revolution lastingly ended any chance of Catholicism becoming re-established in England. History of American People to 1877 Mr. Huggard Iroquois and Pueblo Indian Similarities and Differences in the Colonization Era The Pueblo Indians were the descendants of ancient villagers who had been settled in present day Arizona. After developing their settlements for over three thousand years a decline of these communities occurred probably because of drought. The survivors moved to the south and east and in these areas they progressed as they developed their communities and perfected their techniques of desert farming, irrigation systems to provide water for corn, beans, and cotton. They received the name of Pueblo Indians by the Spanish because when they arrived, these groups of Native Americans lived in small villages, or pueblos. The Pueblo Indians of the southwest were the first to be confronted by Europeans and their long lasting invasion. However, around 1680, the Pueblo Indians revolted against the Spanish and they expelled them for about 12 years. Five main peoples, the Choctaw, Mohawk, Oneida, Cayuga, Seneca, and Onondaga formed the Iroquois. These five groups consolidated the Great League of Peace, which was created to bring stability to the area. The Iroquois were constantly moving geographically, they were known as being strong in battle and that is why they were one of the few Native Indians who survived the colonial invasion. Beginning in 1609, the Iroquois’ were forced to engage in war against the French, their Huron allies and other tribes. These wars were mainly the consequence of the battle of controlling the fur trade and land. Pueblo Indian peoples were farmers in tradition, but as each of the Pueblo villages were in different demographic areas, the crops that were harvested  were different. These crops were mostly corn, beans, and squash and these were stored for two or three years depending on the seasons. The Pueblo people hunted deer and antelope in the mountains and in other villages that were closer to the plains they hunted bison. In all Pueblo Indian societies, rabbit was an abundant source of proteins. The Iroquois on the other hand, had some similarities and differences from the Pueblo Indians in the farming and hunting practices. Iroquois people were farmers, fishers, hunters but their main source of food was through farming. Just like the Pueblo Indians, the Iroquois’ most cultivated crops were corn, beans and squash and they were also stored for later consumption. Concerning hunting, the differences are more notable. The Iroquois hunted mostly deer but they also sought beavers and mus krats in the winter. As they were located close to the river, they also had improved their ability to catch various types of fish. The Pueblo Indian society was matrilineal in most cases, but differed in some, where in a few villages patrilineal clans existed, and males owned houses and land. Women did most of the farming, while men were in charge of the hunting. However, as hunting importance was reduced men also started to have a role in agriculture. Iroquois and Pueblo Indians’ role of women in their society, was similar in which they were both matrilineal, that they had the task to cultivate the land, and raise the children. However, in Iroquois society, women had more power, where they could choose to divorce their husband and order him to live the home with his belongings. Women also had the right to keep the children if a couple separated. The Iroquois established the Great Law of Deganawida, which gave equality to both sexes. In their society the women were the ones who elected the chief of their village and were also the ones who could remove him from his position. The Iroquois had their main prophet, Deganawida, who they thought brought peace to the people. Their beliefs about creation were that in a supernatural way, spirits were integrated into the natural world. Their myth said that a girl in the spirit world who became pregnant without having intercourse had a vision that she had to uproot a tree so she would be able to see the underworld. As she does that, she falls to the natural world. As a result of their belief that the spiritual world was up in the heavens, the  Iroquois first let their dead to be eaten by birds but after they begin to cremate the corpses so that their souls would go up to the pure, spirit world. In the other hand, according to the Pueblo Indians creation myth, they were guided by their God and climbed up through a hole in the earth into the sunlight. These people suffered many tragedies and misfortunes until God guided them to fertile land where they could finally settle down. Pueblo people made ceremonies that took place in underground chamber, where they would practice rituals to cure diseases or to ask their God for good weather. They were also devoted to nature; they had rituals where they request nature for fertility and successful hunts and seasons. Just like the Iroquois they both had the myth that God had sent his twin sons to the natural world to create a balance with dualism. The Iroquois people were one of the latest natives to have had encounters with the Europeans. This gave them way to develop more stable communities successfully. Since the arrival of the Europeans to the Americas, the Iroquois had developed a trading system which helped them acquire goods which were totally new to them. For example: knives and other hunting objects which made them more efficient. They had advanced armory and tools compared to other tribes but when it came to fighting with the Europeans, their chances were slim. The French had cutting-edge weaponry like armor made of metal, firearms, while the Iroquois had wooden armor and fought with bows and arrow, and other more traditional weapons. Even though they were known to have been strong in battle, when they had to confront the Europeans and their other Indian tribes, there was another aspect which made their battle even harder, diseases. Europeans had already been fighting against diseases such as smallpox, influenza and others, for which they had developed an immunity to them and also had ways to cure them. When they finally had contact with each other, these diseases started to spread with the killing bacteria. On the other hand, the Iroquois, who had no knowledge of these diseases nor an immune system that could fight them, encountered themselves with an epidemic die-off of their people. The confrontations with the Europeans changed their ways of life because they had to find other ways to have stable communities. The Pueblo Indians, who had been in contact with the Spanish for a much longer period of time, were part of a society in which the Europeans had strong influence. The Spanish had subjugated the natives and forced them to adopt Christianity as their religion. The power of the Spanish was very recognizable when they started to imprison and torture Pueblo Indians if they did not follow their rules. Nevertheless, the Spanish introduced farming and hunting techniques which helped the Indian communities grow and develop more rapidly. For three generations, native were oppressed until a leader named Pope organized a revolt against the Spanish. This rebellion was called the Pueblo Revolt. When it happened thousands of Indians joined forces and battled and forced the Spanish out of their territory, which they accomplished. After the expulsion of the Europeans, they restored their religious institutions, beliefs and more importantly established independence of their villages and pueblos. While Iroquois and Pueblo Indian natives had many different views politically, religiously, socially and economically, they were both societies in which nature was devoted and revered. They lived of the land and this connected them to the Earth and its seasons greatly. They were spiritual people who believed that spirits had an important part in their lives and that they lived among them and saw their actions. As a consequence of these views, they intuitively knew how to differentiate the good from the bad, since they were being watched. They had no desire of economic power and their societies were mostly based on peace and equality, which differentiates significantly from the Europeans who were greedy and immoral. When they encountered with the Europeans their ways of life were altered forever and introduced a new era in which Christianity had a big influence and with it other more capitalistic aspects.

Ancient India And China s Caste System Essay - 1020 Words

Ancient India and China’s Caste System In ancient India and China a social system was developed to separate the society into levels. This social system is called a caste system. Which caste level you belong to was determined by your occupation and family origin. If you were born the son of a king your life was grand. But, if you were born to a farmer you are a farmer for life. Your birth determines where you fall in the caste system, and you live according to the rules. Both ancient India and China had the caste system. Ancient India and China had similarities and differences in the caste system. Our text book tells us that Aryans became dominant in north India. In Sanskrit text the Indo-Aryan developed the caste and the Brahman religion. The Brahman religion developed into Hinduism. (Beck et al.) India’s caste system there is 4 caste or social levels of people. At the top there is the Bhramin which are the priests and teachers. Second is the Kshatryia which are the leaders and warriors. Third is the Vaishya which are the merchants and landowners. Fourth is the Sundra which are commoners, peasants, and servants. Not considered in the caste system is the untouchables which are the outcasts. They held the lowest valued jobs such as street sweepers, latrine cleaners, and slaughter house workers. The caste system in India forbids people from mingling with other levels of castes. What caste level you were born into you were required to stay at that level. There was noShow MoreRelatedAncient And Early Modern Societies1145 Words   |  5 PagesHaylee Ferguson Professor Seaman History 4 27 November 2016 Ancient and Early-Modern Societies Mesopotamia, China, Aryan India, and early- modern Europe are all different when it comes to the way they live. Mesopotamia is known to be the â€Å"land between the Tigris and Euphrates river†, according to the Greek meaning. In Mesopotamia there is four primary categories of people. 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