Term Paper About Tardiness

School engagement and participation have become the focus of educators over the past decade as they are linked to achievement and dropout rates. In order to learn, a student has to be both physically and mentally present in the classroom, on a consistent basis, ready to receive instruction.Students who are in class, on time, and behaving well are more likely to be actively and productively engaged in their own education. Conversely, students who are moving frequently between schools may be less likely to be engaged in their learning, much like a student who is frequently absent.Additionally, a high rate of mobility at a particular school can adversely affect every student at that school. Measures of engagement and participation vary; however, research has proven that high rates of absenteeism, tardiness, disciplinary incidents, or mobility signal disruptions in the continuity and quality of a student’s learning.Moreover, high rates of absenteeism can lead to course failure and , eventually, dropping out of school. The good news for educators is that all of this student information is accessible early and often in the school year, before course performance data is available.As a result, these data are powerful and useful early indicators for identifying students in need of immediate intervention. In the case of a student who is receiving interventions engagement and participation measures can also provide educators with an important measure of the â€Å"dosage† of the intervention.When viewed together, attendance, tardiness, discipline, mobility, dropout rate and participation metrics help educators understand the true story of how actively and productively individual students, groups of students, and their parents are engaged in school.

Is Groningen a mini-metropolis?

The metropolis of Groningen has been described s a ‘mini-metropolis’ . Is this justifiable? Introduction Groningen is a capital metropolis of the northern state and one of the largest metropolis of in North Netherlands. After few hebdomads live in groningen, during which I have been researching the metropolis either by walking, motorcycle and coach, I seen some new and interesting things here, the civilization and lifestyle the local community and urban planing and transit system of the metropolis. Modern life can be seen from the quality and life style on people of groningen metropolis. Planning and structuring of metropoliss with assorted landmarks that attract a mix of historic and modern architecture, as we see in excurtion developed into a modern metropolis, full of futuristic inventions with good develop public transit sector and green conveyance like motorcycle and walking. From that experience I choose a subject for the first paper assignment in this class with the subject â€Å" The metropolis of Groningen has been described as a ‘ mini – meropolis ‘ . Is this justifiable? To reply that inquiry we must foremost understand what is called the city. For that I am looking for literature about what the city and so analyse the features of the metropolis of groningen metropolis, both economic and demographic facets that describe how the function of groningen metropolis to metropolis around it, so do a decision, whether replying inquiries from the subjects I take? Specify the word andfeatures ofCities The formation history of the Footings of Use and Metropolis word or city metropolitan ( metropolitan as an adjective, the city as a noun ) has been widely used to show a assortment of urban world different. Is really is a metropolis metropolitan or this? When examined from a historical position and lexical ( etimology ) , a term derived from the Grecian city Ancient, which is derived from the word significance female parent metre and word polis which means metropolis ( Wackermann, 2000 ) . At that clip, literally, cities can be interpreted as the â€Å" mother metropolis â€Å" which has orbiter towns as a kid, but it can besides intend the centre of a town, a metropolis – province ( metropolis -state ) , or a state on the Mediterranean, so it can besides be said that during the the term â€Å" city â€Å" has intensions associating to the homeland. Until now, the intension is still used, the term Metropolitan France case refers to the portion of the Gallic Republic located in Europe, the Gallic mainland and Corsica as the female parent state, in add-on to countries outside of it as a former settlement which joined the Gallic Republic. Harmonizing to Merriam-Webster Dictionary definition of the city is a major metropolis, or town that is the largest of any province, state or part. Metropolis is besides a great metropolis, the metropolis became an of import centre aimed at specific activities. Heinz Reif ( 2006 ) in his comprehensive reappraisal of the metropolis discourse lists several features of a city:big population size ( several million ) ;structural wealth ( material and cultural resources, high concentration of human and economic capital, representative urban signifier ) ;outstanding national and international centrality ;high in-migration with high cultural, societal and cultural diverseness, widely distributed orientation but besides clashs and struggles.The term metropolitan is besides said to be derived from the word â€Å" tube â€Å" which took the word of the system â€Å" Light railroad â€Å" ( light train system ) in urban countries. Needs of the urban conveyance system is the consequence of th e growing of the metropolis that already has a system of â€Å" commuter â€Å" urban population, eg buffer from the metropoliss to the female parent metropolis. Since the early 1980s the usage of the scientific attack in analyzing the phenomenon becomes progressively turning cities. But scientists and organisations be aftering more attending to the development of metropolitan countries instead than explicate a precise definition for this phenomenon. in 1991, Jean Bernard Dezert Bastie and develop a definition of the modern city that is based on the maps of a metropolis, which is that the definition of a city: – There is ever determined by the size of the demographic, its size can be determined by factors that are more of import than quantitative steps of population – Characterized by communications and transit substructure systems that serve the motion of commutation, the flow of information, and decision-making. – As a centre of fiscal activity in the upper degree. – As a cardinal assemblage of international companies. – As a centre of political and administrative powers of a province. – As a point of development or the usage of high engineering and advanced telecommunications. – As an of import point of cultural activities and scientific. – As an international tourer finish. – As the functional labour centres and lodging. An urban expert, Angotti ( 1993 ) argued that a city is non merely a really big metropolis, but besides a new signifier of society, the larger, more complex and have more power cardinal function, both in footings of economic sciences, political relations, and civilization. Industrial metropoliss of the nineteenth century is more accurately described as a precursor of the metropolitan metropoliss that were characteristic of the metropoliss of the twentieth century. An urban city in the universe is an look of inter-related in many societal, cultural and economic maps of national and international. In add-on to depicting the socio-economic status of many of the maps and size of the population of a metropolis, a metropolis term harmonizing to the Dictionary of Geography Baud ( 1995 ) can be evaluated from the size of hierarchy, which is considered a city as a functional centre. The maps of the power inherent in city which subsequently became the footing of the behaviour of the growing of the metropolis. Here the fiscal strength and geopolitic considerations that played a major function of a metropolitan country. Therefore, the term city is no longer merely considered as a capital metropolis. A large metropolis or a really big must be considered as a metropolitan metropolis. The population is non the lone important feature of metropolitan distinguish between the metropolitan with other colonies country. Other standards what is of import is the socio-economic activities that indicate the presence of specialisation map normally the industries and services. Integration between residential countries and the workplace is a existent job in The current metropolitan and a typical metropolitan character. Angotti ( 1993 ) stated that the procedure of specialisation in metropolitan occurs because ever development of production and distribution engineering and communications. Another character is the easiness of a metropolitan mobility harmonizing to Angotti ( 1993 ) seen in the 3 signifiers of mobility: 1. Mobility Work ( Employment Mobility ) 2. Mobility Housing ( Residential Mobility ) 3. Mobility trip ( Trip Mobility ) Characterized the work of the easy mobility of people working on the move without holding to travel abode because more types and fluctuations of occupations available in the metropolis metropolitan. Job mobility is related to the handiness of capital and mobility significant capital. Mobility abode normally follow alterations in the workplace. Resettlement is non ever due to their ain desires, associated with the motion of the workplace, but frequently besides occur due to be moved by force or non. Not forced to happen due to alterations in the monetary value land caused by the kineticss of existent estate development. Mobility trip easier to make in metropolitan than in other vicinities because of the handiness of Better transit. in overall it can be said that the metropolitan characterized by the mobility of capital and labour are really high in order to non be a definition of the metropolitan country Description and Features of The City Groningen The metropolis of Groningen’s place as the capital of the state and the place of authorities made it a cardinal metropolis to other environing countries. Official twelvemonth of constitution 1040 ( oldest known mention, ‘Cruoninga’ ) but likely earlier because of the oldest archeological hints found are believed to arise from the twelvemonth 3950 BC – 3720 BC, although the first major colony in Groningen has been traced back to the third century AD. In the thirteenth century, the City of Groningen was an of import trading centre, and its dwellers built a metropolis walls as the district boundary and to protect the metropolis. The metropolis has a strong influence on the environing country. The most influential period of this metropolis in the late fifteenth century as in the Martini tower built with a tallness reaches 127 metres, doing it the tallest edifice in Europe at the clip and built as ‘evidence’ of power. The metropolis is known nationally as the â€Å" Metropolis of the North † and the â€Å" Martinistad † refers to the Martini Tower. The metropolis is known as the â€Å" Stad † in the local idiom, which merely translates as City ( Van Steen, 2014 ) because Groningen is the lone major metropolis in the state of Groningen. Fig.1. Martini Tower, Groningen ( beginning: Van Steen, 2014 ) The metropolis of Groningen is the largest metropolis in the north Netherlands that capable to pull people from other metropoliss to come for surveies, work and unrecorded at that place. The metropolis of Groningen has 189,991 occupants ( 33 % of provincial sum ) with 134.000 occupations and 13.300 house ( Van Steen, 2014 ) . Fig. 2. Population of City Groningen ( Source: keys figure 2010, gementee groningen ) Fig. 3. Labour Market and Labour Force ( Source: keys figure 2010, gementee groningen ) We see in the figure 3. above comparing between the employment of labour is non relative because occupations are more than the available labour force to run into their employment in the metropolis of Groningen, hence, unfastened to the labour market for occupation searchers in the metropolis of Groningen. Coupled with the presence of oil and natural gas in Western Europe ‘s largest unfastened broad employment chances in the metropolis of groningen. In the conveyance sector, the metropolis of Groningen has developed a manner of transit that is good integrated with the public conveyance with non-motorized conveyance such as walkers and bicyclers as we can see in the tabular array above traffic and conveyance. City of Groningen prioritising walkers and bicyclers to go, therefore we can see the whole position of the metropolis is dominated by the bicyclers. This is supported by the substructure for bicyclers is a motorcycle lane on each route metropolis of Groningen. in line with the City vision 2008: A compact metropolis ; everything on bike distance of 5 to 7 kilometers from Grote Markt ( Van Steen, 2014 ) Fig. 4. Traffic and Transport ( Source: keys figure 2010, gementee groningen ) Public conveyance is good developed with good service with service through about the full district of the metropolis of Groningen and the surrounding metropoliss are intended for workers transposing from metropoliss around Groningen with alternate manners of trains and coachs with goings and reachings each manner decently scheduled and on clip. This can be seen in each manner is equipped with modern information system engineering so that we can see when and where we can acquire geared. For each itinerary public conveyance manners can besides be accessed through the package on the phone via 9292 so that we can be after a trip utilizing these manners. At each station there is a park and drive installations for bicyclers and other vehicles to park their vehicles and go on to develop as a mass public conveyance. Transport can be inferred from the description of the features of a city that has mass and develop public conveyance with good service and incorporate engineerings and full of good information for its users. The position of the metropolis of Groningen as a pupil metropolis which is visited yearly by 1000s of pupils from around the universe. Because the metropolis of Groningen has sectors with international position that is instruction sector, Here you find the metropolis ‘s celebrated province university, university of Groningen, Hanze University Groningen, University of Applied Sciences and the University Medical Center Groningen. with the presence of one of the best universities in Europe, Groningen is besides known as the international metropolis of civilization and art and is frequently used as one of the concerts of international creative persons by vera groningen known as Club for the International Pop Underground used to be a nice pupil fraternity. Nowadays they a to the full equipped concert locale where legendary sets like: U2, Sonic Youth, Nirvana and The White Stripes playing in year-Many other of their early old ages, and so a big and influential set visited Vera in the 80s, like Soundgarden, the Lemonheads, Yo La Tengo, Slayer, Bad Religion, NOFX. It is a few illustrations of cultural life and people ‘s life styles and pupils in the metropolis of groningen how they create inventions with their creativeness to construct and develop the civilization and growing of the metropolis of groningen over clip, until now. Fig. 5. vera groningen ( Soure: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.vera-groningen.nl ) Not merely to develop the metropolis, groningen besides execute inter-regional cooperation through the provincial authorities with the states of Groningen and Drenthe are Frysland nighest incorporated in concerted partnership called Samenwerkingsverband Noord-Nederland ( SNN ) . SNN aims to beef up the economic place of North Holland with a focal point on five economic secktor, such as: energy, detector engineering, H2O engineering, agriculture and wellness. Thus unfastened chances in the development and work together in instruction, research and civilization with bussiness, knowlegde establishments, public organitaion and other goverment bureaus among the states in Netherlandss and other states. In add-on, the provincial authorities besides conducts international cooperation partnership with German and Swedish authoritiess. Decision The metropolis of Groningen has met some of the stairss and features of some of the mentions mentioned in the city, the metropolis of Groningen has is the capital metropolis of the local community centre on the north netherland. The figure of occupations in the metropolis of groningen attract occupation searchers from assorted metropoliss around groningen, Netherlands towns in other assorted universe even came looking for life in this beautiful metropolis. Known as the instruction metropolis with one of the best universities in Europe and even in the universe with a assortment of pupils from assorted parts of the universe semen to acquire the best pedidikan. Spatial planning and urban planning that is modern with good conveyance development to back up the mobility of people in the metropolis and commuters who work in the metropolis of Groningen which can be regarded as feature of a metropolitan metropolis. People ‘s lives better life style and night life with amusement installations, shopping promenades with international quality that have made life image groningen metropolis city. Metropolis is non merely how large the size of the metropolis, and occupants of the metropolis, but what about the features of the metropolis with a batch of maps in it and is an of import function for the nearby towns and metropoliss urban life Creative, advanced, and how to make a modern metropolis as a city. Due to the size of the population and is non a big metropolis, a city with a assortment of maps that have been described in the reappraisal above makes an overview of the metropolis as a metropolitan metropolis groningen, so I think that the metropolis of Groningen can be considered as a mini – city. Refference In Search of Metropolitan Definitions: Lessons From Metro Davao Ruben G. Mercado1998 ( Philippine Institute for Development Studies Discussion Paper Series No. 98-29 ) Van Steen, Paul. ( 2014 ) Society and Space: The City of Groningen, Lecture Materials, Spatial Problems & A ; Spatial Policies Spring 2014 Provincie Groningen hypertext transfer protocol: //www.provinciegroningen.nl/ Vera Groningen, hypertext transfer protocol: //www.vera-groningen.nl/ Keys Figure 2010, Gementee Groningen Angotti, T ( 1993 ) Metropolis 2000: Planning, Poverty and Politics. London, Routledge Reif, Heinz. ( 2006 ) . Metropolen. Geschichte, Begriffe, Methoden. TU Berlin, Transatlantisches Graduiertenkolleg. ( CMS Working Paper Series, 001-2006 ) . Funtion citi of groningen to sorruoding are The funtion doesn’t have from other metropolis That makes metropolis of groningen mini city 1

Critical Evaluation of Institutional Factors Impact on Outward/Inward

Essay Critical Evaluation of Institutional Factors Impact on Outward/Inward Foreign Direct Investment This aim of this essay is to evaluate the impact of institutional factors on outward and inward FDI. This will be done by determination of the major FDI (Foreign Direct Investment) factors, evaluation of the role of institutional factors and investigation of institutional factors impact on inward and outward FDI flows.Several sources (Aswathappa, 2012; Jensen, 2012) have identified FDI as an investment, made by a company based in one country (home country) into another company, which is based in other country (host country), in order to obtain certain degree of management control over that company. Recent evidence (Ho and Rashid, 2011) has demonstrated that a tendency for a firm to engage in foreign investment depends on a combination of different factors and elements.Dunning (2011) has argued that company has to satisfy three conditions in order to successfully engage in internation al activity, which are ownership (know-how, technologies), localisation (natural resources, low production costs) and internationalisation. This theory is quite unique because it is developed by several important FDI determinants such as natural resources, production efficiency, strategic assets and market size. Nachum (1999) has argued that in accordance with Hymer’s firm’s specific advantages theory, companies are engaging in FDI if they possess specific advantages e. . access to raw materials, economy of scale, marketing advantages, etc. Aswathappa (2010) has suggested another FDI determinant which is ‘follow the client/rival’. If one of the clients builds a foreign facility, it is reasonably for the company to follow the client and also build a foreign facility in order to continue cooperating with the client. If one company goes to the foreign market it draws the attention of other similar companies, that can potentially exploit similar opportunity an d therefore follow the rival.The same source has also stated that market size is another crucial FDI determinant, which play important role for foreign investors. Nevertheless, Seyoum (2011) has argued that FDI inflows cannot be only determined by such variables as qualitative and skilled labour, availability of natural resources, technologies or modern infrastructure. It is essential to highlight the importance of role of institutional factors in attracting foreign investors. It was suggested by Solomon (2007) that foreign investors are seeking for countries with stable political and social institutions.As it was figured out by Benassy-Quere, et al. (2007) the main institutional factors are: efficient protection of civil and property rights, economic and politic freedom and stability and corruption. Moreover, Globerman and Shapiro (2003) have stated that good institutions (well developed financial system, private property protection, government services, etc. ) have positive impact on both inward and outward FDI. Nevertheless, in some cases quality of institutions depends on FDI for instance, Chinese MNE’s value natural resources more than sound legal system or political stability (Kolstag and Wiig, 2012).According to Jensen (2012) host country’s political regime is one of the most important determinants of FDI. It is considered that authoritarian regime is rather more stable than democratic. The same source has assumed that democracy may be influenced by the interests of the particular groups, which can increase tax rates, trade barriers or implement protectionism policies in order to protect domestic companies from foreign MNE’s. A study carried out by (Knutsen, et al. , 2011) has stated that authoritarian regimes can reduce labour costs supressing human or different organisation rights e. g. hild labour and trade unions and therefore decrease costs for foreign investors. Nonetheless, there is counterargument provided by the same source s (Jensen, 2012; Knutsen, et al. 2011) which suggests that democracy has rather more positive effects on FDI that authoritarian regime. It was argued that reduced child labour can increase education level and trade unions can bring more social stability. In some cases MNE’s are able to influence democratic country’s government in their favour. Moreover, investments in non-democratic countries may hurt reputation of the foreign investors and decrease demand for their products at home market.Recent evidence (Hatchondo and Martinez, 2011) has argued that foreign investors enjoy sound legal protection system. Another source (OECD, 2008) has suggested that higher protection standards results in the greater positive impact on FDI. It was also argued that governments with free market economy have more efficient legal protection system than countries where economy is heavily influenced by government e. g. China. Free market economy is based on ownership, therefore MNE’s from such countries value property rights and they tend to select host countries with the same regulations and laws (Hsu, Zhang and Long, 2007).Level of corruption, is quite contradicting aspect of inward FDI. It is mostly assumed to have negative impact on FDI. Firstly, it brings additional costs, if foreign investors have to bribe someone. Secondly, corruption involves more uncertainty and risk because it is done in illegal way. Furthermore bribed contracts cannot be enforced in court. This issue is also able to impact on outward FDI, because investors tend to exclude possible risks and uncertainty (Wei, 2000; Knutsen, et al. , 2011). However, Egger and Winner (2005) have suggested that corruption may be beneficial for the FDI.The authors have described an idea of â€Å"grabbing hand† and â€Å"helping hand†. It was said that, indeed, corruption bring additional costs and uncertainty for foreign investors and acts as the host country’s â€Å"grabbing handâ⠂¬  but it is only in the short run. It was stated that in long run corruption might be attractive for foreign investors. Corruption allows speeding up bureaucratic procedures or can help to avoid regulatory and administrative restrictions and therefore it will act as the â€Å"helping hand†. Ultimately, if the revenue effects are bigger that costs effects corruption is likely to be positive for FDI.In accordance with several studies (Wells, 2001; Azemar and Delios, 2008) it was figured out that taxes have relatively small impact on IFDI (Inward Foreign Direct Investment). The authors have stated that in some cases foreign investors are much likely to focus on large market size with rather high tax rates than on country with small market size and much lower tax rates. Nevertheless, it was suggested that countries with excessive tax rates are much likely to kill IFDI however the countries with reasonable tax rates may exert little or almost no influence on IFDI.Furthermore, i t was also mentioned that tax havens demonstrate that countries (or regions) with extremely low tax rates are important determinant of the IFDI e. g. Delaware in the USA. Peng and Parente (2012) have stated that bureaucratic regulations and heavy taxation on domestic earnings in Brazil have pushed two thirds of the OFDI stock to tax havens. Another interesting idea was proposed by Wells (2001) it was argued that if host countries policymakers have better understanding of how tax policies can affect the foreign investors, they would be more successful in terms of attracting FDI’s.For, example tax holiday policy could stimulate IFDI flows. A number of authors (Kolstag and Wiig, 2012; Kalotay and Sulstarova, 2010) have figured out that OFDI (Outward Foreign Direct Investment) may be heavily influenced by government or political changes. One of the best examples is Chinese â€Å"Open Door† and â€Å"Go Global† policies, it was argued that those changes has increased total Chinese OFDI from 3. 3% in 1996 to 10% in 2006 (Kolstag and Wiig, 2012). However, it was also described that most of the Chinese companies are state owned and their activities reflect political objectives e. . focus on natural resources. Political changes and stability is significant push factor. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, many Russian privately-owned companies were actively engaging in OFDI. The reason of that issue is that they tried to avoid uncertainty and find safe environment with stable political environment (Kalotay and Sulstarova, 2010). As it was figured out by several authors (Levent, 2006; Garcia and Navia, 2003) financial institutions are important ‘Push’ factor of OFDI. Financial conditions of the home country affect the decision to invest abroad.If home country has poor financial system e. g. no access to financial support, unstable deposit base, high interest rates, etc. than the MNE’s are much likely to seek countries with wel l-developed financial institutions. Another finding was proposed by (Kolstag and Wiig, 2012) arguing that in some countries e. g. China, financial institutions are more cooperative with foreign investors that with the domestic companies, therefore companies are pushed to go overseas in order to obtain access to financial institutions.Witt and Lewin (2007) have stated that misalignments between the firms needs and home country institutional conditions are pushing firms to go abroad. The authors have demonstrated that countries with relatively high societal coordination are slowly adapting changes in the extra-institutional environment and results as the misalignments between firms and home institutions. For example, in year 2003 Germany had high social contributions and taxes as well as others rigidities which have impacted on both OFDI and IFDI flows.It was argued that every seventh German entrepreneur was planning to partly move abroad, every ninth was planning to move all producti on abroad and every thirteenth was thinking of relocating HQ (Head Quarter) abroad. Therefore, firms tend to seek the most appropriate for them institutional environment and if there is no such in home country, they are much likely to go abroad. Summarising all of the issues, it was figured out that most of the institutional factors have quite significant impact on IFDI and OFDI. The research has demonstrated that such nstitutional factors as political stability, governmental regime, corruption, legal system, financial institutions, etc. have serious impact on FDI. Nevertheless, there are some situations when other non-institutional factors may be more important, for instance China is focused more on the natural resources more than on the good institutions or market size might be more important for foreign investors than taxation issues. It was also found out that some institutional determinants may have impact on both outward and inward FDI flows.For example, political stability or corruption, these two factors may be applicable for both types of FDI flows. However, some of those institutional factors are better applicable for IFDI rather than OFDI or vice versa. References Aswathappa, K. (2010). ‘Intrernational Business’, 4th Edition, pp. 100-112. New Dehli: McGraw Hill. Azemar, C. and Delious, A. (2008). ’ Tax competition and FDI: The special case of developing countries. Journal of the Japanese and International Economies’. 22 (1), pp. 85-108. Dunning, J (2011). New Challenges for International Business Research: Back TotThe Future, pp. 90-200. UK: Edward Elgar. Egger, P. and Winner, H. (2005). ‘Evidence on corruption as an incentive for foreign direct investment’. European Journal of Political Economy. 21 (4), pp. 932-952. Garcia, A. and Navia, D. , (2003). ‘DETERMINANTS AND IMPACT OF FINANCIAL SECTOR FDI TO EMERGING ECONOMIES: A HOME COUNTRY'S PERSPECTIVE’, pp. 21-23. Spain: Banco de Espana. Globerman, S. and D. Shapiro (2002). ‘Global Foreign Direct Investment Flows: The Role of Governance Infrastructure’, World Development, 30, 11, 1899–919. Hatchondo, J. C. and Martinez, L. (2011). Legal Protection to Foreign Investors. Legal Protection to Foreign Investors’. 97 (2), pp. 175-187. Hsu, C. , Zhang, W. and Lok, L. , (2007). ‘The Business and Investment Environment in Taiwan and Mainland China’, pp. 200-205. Singapore: World Scientific. Jensen, N. , (2012). ‘Politics and Foreign Direct Investment’, pp. 8-14. USA: University of Michigan Press. Kalotay, K. and Sulstarova, A. (2010). ‘Modelling Russian outward FDI’. Journal of International Management. 16 (2), pp. 131-142. Kolstad, I. and Wiig, A. (2012). What determines Chinese outward FDI?.Journal of World Business. 47 (1), pp. 26-34. Knutsen, C. H. , Rygh, A. and Hveem, H. (2011). ‘Does State Ownership Matter? Institutions Effect on Foreign Direct Investment R evisited’. Business and Politics. 13 (1), pp. 1-31. Levent, I. (2006). ‘Global Development Finance 2006: The Development Potential of Surging Capital Flows’, pp. 107-110. Washington: WB Publications. Nachum, L. (1999). â€Å"Home country and firm-specific ownership advantages: A study of US, UK and French advertising agencies†. International Business Review. 8 (5), pp. 633-660. OECD, (2008). Private Sector Development in the Middle East and North Africa Making Reforms Succeed’, pp. 124-126. France: OECD Publishing. Paul, J. (2008). ‘International Business’, 4th Edition, pp. 235-240. New Dehli: PHI. Peng, M. and Parente, R. (2012). ‘Institution-Based Weaknesses Behind Emerging Multinationals’. RAE. 52 (3), pp. 360-364. Quere, A. , Coupet, M. and Mayer, T. (2007). ‘Institutional Determinants of Foreign Direct Investment’. The World Economy. 30 (5), pp. 764-782. Seyoum, B. (2011). ‘Informal Institutions and Foreign Direct Investment’. Journal of Economic Issues. 45 (4), pp. 917-940. Solomon, B (2007).Three Essays on the Impacts of Risk and Uncertainty on Foreign Direct Investment and Remittances Flows into Developing Countries, pp. 53-55. USA: ProQuest. Wei, S. -J. , (2000). ‘How Taxing is Corruption on Internal Investors? ’, Review of Economics and Statistics, 82, 1, 1–11. Wells, L. (2001). ‘Using Tax Incentives to Compete for Foreign Investment: Are They Worth the Costs? ’ pp. 97-100. USA: WB Publications. Witt, M. and Lewin, A. , (2007). ‘Outward foreign direct investment as escape response to home country institutional constraints’. Journal of International Business Studies. 38 (4), 579-594.

Film Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 2

Film Analysis - Essay Example r who is not convinced of the boy’s guilt and how he combines a mixture of persuasion and indictment to change the 11-1 voting position of the jury against the defendant to a unanimous verdict of not guilty. An uneducated, Puerto Rican adolescent is on trial for murdering his father with a switchblade. The jury of 12 all white, all male, mostly middle class men retire to the chamber for their deliberations. Only one juror has a dissenting vote of not guilty. At first the others are impatient to get it over with, but the lone juror slowly and persistently forces the other members to re-examine the shaky evidence against the defendant and the unreliable eye witness testimony. He also points out that the court appointed attorney had not tried to serve his client’s best interests and had further compromised the defendant’s case. On this basis, heated exchanges and discussions take place between the other members of the jury, revealing deep rooted prejudices and biases. The arguments bounce back and forth, anger and uncomfortable feelings are unleashed in that closed room, but the outcome is that the existence of a reasonable doubt of the accused’s guilt is acknowledged by all the jury members and the boy is exonerated. The pragmatic approach takes into account the paradoxes between the overt, verbal communication and the interpretation by the listener of the language that is used, as a reflection of the true intentions of the speaker which may be different from the actual verbal message being conveyed. This process of meta communication that goes on at a different level from the outward conventional one and therefore can sometimes result in miscommunication. Bateson reframed psychotherapy based on a horizontal approach that examined an individual’s relationships with those around him rather than focusing on Freud’s intensive vertical approach that stressed the process going on within the individual. This horizontal approach was directed towards the study

World War I Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 2

World War I - Essay Example According to (Clark 21), the four main causes of the World War I were nationalism, militarism, imperialism and alliances. Imperialism which is domination of one country as a result of its prowess in economics, politics or culture was caused by the fact that after the industrial revolution, some nations in Europe became rich and hence started controlling other nations. As a result of the imperialistic foreign policies imposed by the great empires like the Ottoman Empire, Russian Empire and Germany Empire, tensions began to accumulate. Following the scramble and partition of Africa in search of natural resources to trade, the European nations started recruiting the Africans to use crude weapons. Nations also started acquiring military weapons in preparation for a war as a result of the increasing tension. This militarism paved a smooth way for the way. Most of the Europeans were nationalists who were prepared to defend their nations against any enemies or attack by foreign policies. When the heir of Austria-Hungary was assassinated, it is nationalism that led to the people of Austria declare war against the Yugoslav nationalists. With the tensions already high in Europe, the war was sparked. Alliances were quickly formed as European nations began choosing the nations they would support in the wars and this led to the spread of the war to most parts of Europe. With each country in the alliance bringing in Africans on top of their military to fight the enemies and with the previously acquired arms and other crude weaponry, the war continued until 1918. The United States of America would not have joined the war had the Germans not triggered it with their constant nuisance. Germany’s submarines were constantly violating the international law and entering illegally into American waters. They even sunk a British ship killing several Americans.

Staff Turnover in Hong Kong's Hospitality Industry Essay

Staff Turnover in Hong Kong's Hospitality Industry - Essay Example The phenomenon of employee turnover is considered as one of the natural outcomes of conduct of business in modern organizations. Thus it is said that achieving zero percent turnover is not practical and should not even be attempted in today’s rapidly changing employment environment (Branham, 2000). It is also said that some turn over may be desirable as it would enable a shake out amongst the employees avoiding bunching up of a large number with similar pay scales, salaries and capabilities making a pyramid (Branham, 2000). To retain all such employees will be extremely expensive for the organization. New employees are also said to bring in fresh ideas, approaches, abilities, attitudes and also prevent the organization from remaining stagnant (Branham, 2000). 2.3 Brief introduction of Hong KongHong Kong is said to be a very vibrant metropolis which has a life and dynamism of its own making it one of the unique cities in the World. It has a typical Chinese culture which has rem ained unaffected by British influence over the years (Hong Kong, 2006). It offers a mix of the modern and the ancient, the Oriental and the Western and therein lies its charm. At the same time the employment environment in Hong Kong follows a very flexible tendency. Thus employees in Hong Kong are not inhibited by generally accepted norms of loyalty and life long service which is characterized by some Eastern management cultures such as the Japanese (Hong Kong, 2006).

Marketing Analysis of the Country of Zaire Research Paper

Marketing Analysis of the Country of Zaire - Research Paper Example Its capital is Kinshasa and its people are called Zairian (Library of Congress Country Studies, 1993). "Known as the Belgian Congo up until its independence in June 1960, unrest and rebellion plagued the new government until 1965, when Lieutenant General Joseph-Dsir Mobutu, by then commander-in-chief of the national army, seized control of the country and declared himself president for five years" (Wikimedia Foundation, Inc, 2009). Geography. The over-all land area is 2,343,950 square kilometers / 904765 square miles and with a generally high temperature and humidity. Two wet and two dry seasons are observed during the year with an average annual temperature of 25C (Library of Congress Country Studies, 1993). Demography. The over-all population of the country is recorded at 53,624,718 and a density of 22.88 per sq. kilometer. A study of Shapiro in 1995 has found out that the population grows by 3% annually over the past 30 years (Shapiro, 1995). This figure has not increased much then. The birth rate is 46.02 births/ 1000 population while the death rate is at 15.15 deaths/ 1000 population. Life expectancy at birth is recorded at 48.94 years.

Advertising Strategy and Planning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Advertising Strategy and Planning - Essay Example About 6% of the UK population is vegetarian which approximately 3.5 million individuals are. In early 1990’s this population was about 3-4% (Case study notes). The diet for vegetarians comprises of nuts, seeds, fruits, vegetables and grains and at times eggs and products. Fundamentally a vegetarian does not take fish, meat or poultry. There is a considerable section of the UK population that inclines towards minimizing meat in their diet. According to the survey conducted by TGI, 6.3% of the people admitted to be vegetarian while 13.3% admitted to have done away with meat diet on voluntary basis (Case study notes). The largest populations of vegetarians are women aged between 20 and 44 years and those living in the southern part of UK (The Vegetarian Society 59). There is a close relationship between the high consciousness of issues to do with environment and the vegetarians like carbon footprint, sustainability and global warming. The forces for the pattern in consumption of less quantity of meat are attributed to the current lifestyles and an interest in wellbeing and health. The five day campaign launched by the government in 2003 encouraging five segments of vegetables and fruits per day is attributed with the supporting awareness of the advantages of consuming vegetables and fruits (The Vegetarian Society 59). The rise in ethnic food has resulted into more foreign spices and savoring into the diet of the country and supported increased shift away from the conventional diet of two vegetables and meat. There are about 110,000 restaurants in UK with joint sales revenue of  £25 billion (Powers and Cathy 47). Even though majority of the restaurants provide vegetarian foods, reasonably very few offer exclusively vegetarian alternatives. To use 5% of the advertisement budget on social media, 39% on digital advertisement, 27% on public relation, 18% on

Israel & US aid Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Israel & US aid - Essay Example The United States policy aims at promoting trade and cooperation with other nations. However, the United States has gone through economic downturn while the Chinese communist government has been rising rapidly (China Times, 2011). China is the greatest creditor to the United States and is uncomfortable with a single country’s global reserve currency. China believes the US should cut spending on social security and military. According to People’s daily, Beijing was angered by the decision to downgrade the US debt by S & P. The Chinese stepped up criticism against the United States and complained of the scheme of worldwide currencies that has been subjugated by the US dollar. The primary reason is the desire for Beijing to protect its financial interests (McGrego, 2012). According to a Chinese official Xinhua, the mounting dept and opinionated battles with US have dented the illustration of US overseas. The Chinese officials asserted that the US must cease its addiction to debt and learn to live within its means (China Times, 2011). This shall ensure safety of the Chinese assets in dollars. According Jamil, Beijing is unhappy with the checks subjected to the Chinese investors in the United States. China accuses the united states of checking the political background of Chinese investors. One of the Chinese officials, Wang, criticized the united states of discrimination and overspending on military at the expense of the economy (UPI, 2012). The Chinese policy aims at protecting its international interest like increasing its military presence and military budget. The United States has been opposing increased military spending in China. China is exerting influence in places it never affected before. For decades, China did business with regimes like Iran and Sudan which were unfriendly to the United States (McGregor, 2012). Presently the Chinese are doing business with America’s closest allies. China surpassed the United States to become the

MHE510, Occupational Health and Safety, Mod 2 Case Assignment Essay

MHE510, Occupational Health and Safety, Mod 2 Case Assignment - Essay Example Twisting and turning or chronically lifting heavy materials can cause chronic pain. People who normally have a sedentary lifestyle also have a tendency to have low back pain, especially when there is a sudden injury or when there is periodic heavy work between (Hills, 2010). The CDC lists 5 physical workforce factors that affect eventual back pain issues. These include heavy physical work, lifting and forceful movements, bending and twisting in awkward positions, whole body vibration, and static work postures. During studies each of these proved to be a problem that created back pain (CDC, 1997), of 18 studies done, 13 showed strong evidence for this. Our worker lifts heavy boxes regularly, he also works in the warehouse and performs other types of heavy labor. We know little about what he is like at home and there is a belief that he may have fallen at home. He is now complaining of chronic low back pain. Do we know what has caused this musculoskeletal disorder? This is a man who is at great risk for MSD due to the type of work that he does. He does heavy labor and he lifts on a regular basis. It must be considered that certainly whatever has caused his back pain, this is a contributing factor. One of the questions that has to be ask here is whether or not precautions have been taken in helping to protect this employee. Is he wearing back support? Has there been instruction for the employee in proper lifting techniques? Are regular breaks being taken? Is the company doing pre-employment physicals and if so, has this been a prior problem for this employee? It is not always clear what actually has caused the pain. There are some distinctions that need to be made and those include the presence of the symptoms and when they started, when it was reported, whether the employee attributes the symptoms or the original injury to work or "the fall", what the

Budgeting, Costing and Casemix Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Budgeting, Costing and Casemix - Essay Example as the NPV is less than zero so it is not advisable for the university to invest in this project. Had the NPV been greater than zero it would make sense to invest in this venture. Question Five Part (a) The state of revenues and expenses for the hospital are as shown in the table below: Revenues Direct Indirect 16 5.5 1.5 5 3.3 3.8 6 2.8 1.6 - - 4.4 - - 2.55 27 11.6 13.85 Projected Profit 1.55 Note: All values in millions of dollars. Therefore the hospital’s projected profit for the 2010 fiscal year is $1.55 million. Part (b) The allocation of indirect costs to the patient services departments are indicated in the table below along with the agreed cost drivers. Indirect Cost Cost Driver Cost (Millions of Dollars) Financial Services Patient Revenue 1.5 Maintenance Space Utilisation 3.8 Housekeeping Labour Hours 1.6 Administration Salary Dollars 4.4 Personnel Salary Dollars 2.55 The breakup of the indirect costs to each department is described below. Accounting Salaries: divided equally amongst all three departments, therefore cost to each department is 0.5 million dollars. Maintenance: divided amongst all three departments based on space utilisation (covered area), cost to each department is indicated in the table below: Department Space Utilisation (square meters) Percentage of Total Space Cost (millions of dollars) Routine Care 199,800 66 2.525 Laboratory 39,600 13 0.50 Radiology 61,200 20 0.774 Housekeeping: divided amongst all three departments based on labour hours utilised, cost to each department is indicated in the table below: Department Labour Hours Percentage of Total Cost (millions of dollars) Routine Care 76000 84% 1.34 Laboratory 6000 7% 0.105 Radiology 9000 10% 0.158 Administration: divided amongst all three departments based on salary dollars utilised, cost to each department is indicated in the table below: Salary Dollars Percentage of Total Cost (millions of dollars) Routine Care 5,709,000 56% 2.47 Laboratory 2,035,000 20% 0.879 Radiolog y 2,439,000 24% 1.05 Personnel: divided amongst all three departments based on salary dollars utilised, cost to each department is indicated in the table below: Salary Dollars Percentage of Total Cost (millions of dollars) Routine Care 5,709,000 56% 1.40 Laboratory 2,035,000 20% 0.50 Radiology 2,439,000 24% 0.60 Part (c) The allocation method utilised is well reasoned and makes a lot of sense on paper and on ground. The accounting salaries would in principle get divided amongst all three departments equally. The maintenance costs would get divided amongst all three departments based on the floor space allocated in principle. However it must be taken in mind that the routine care department would have little equipment that would require large maintenance costs but the laboratory and the radiology department would furnish such equipment e.g. centrifuges, x-ray machines and the like. Therefore using total space occupied alone would not really reflect the state of maintenance expenses a lone because routine care would always assume more space while laboratory and radiology would use

What Guides Ethical Decision Making Essay Example for Free

What Guides Ethical Decision Making Essay A processor manufacturing company who are currently facing financial troubles completed an order about three months ago for newly designed high-powered processors that are smaller than and four times as powerful as its predecessor. These processors are to be placed into cutting edge cellular phones by a leading cellular phone manufacturer whose release date is a mere month away. A design inconsistency was recently discovered that essentially meant that the processors would work but would be no more powerful than its predecessor in certain conditions. A flaw that would only to be discerned when extraordinary load was placed on the device component whilst it was exposed to ambient temperatures of over 85 degrees Fahrenheit. The company’s CEO is now faced with the difficult decision of either doing nothing or replacing all the processors. Doing nothing, allows the company to keep its doors open, grants access to potential future earnings and saves the jobs of over 1000 employees. A decision that clearly seeks to ensure the common good of the company by giving them the ability to remain competitive while remaining silent on an issue that poses substantial risks to the cellular phone manufacturers earnings and reputation. The alternative, replacing all the processors would undoubtedly ensure that the processors function as advertised, but doing so would be at a significant cost to the company and may likely result in massive downsizing or the company’s declaration of insolvency. Though this option speaks positively to the moral character of the company, it may also lead to the company’s demise and leave over 1000 employees jobless. Both decisions, in light of the situation presented, may be considered to be ethical. A predicament which may undoubtedly lead a person to question how does one choose between several ethical options and more importantly what exactly guides this choice. The answer to these questions can be found in a branch of philosophy called theoretical ethics. Theoretical ethics is the rational reflection on what is right, what is wrong, what is just, what is unjust, what is good, and what is bad in terms of human behaviour according to [https://www.boundless.com/marketing /textbooks/boundless-marketing-textbook/social-responsibility-ethics-in-marketing-16/ethics-an-overview-101/definition-  of-ethics-498-8310/]. This branch of philosophy is exercised via the application the application of ethical theory. Ethical theories are those that represent the grand ideas which guide ethical principles and systematically attempt to answer the fundamental practical ethical questions [Ethical Theories http://www.medindia.net/education/familymedicine/biomedical-ethics-theories.htm#ixzz3H84Tlgi3] Ethical theories can be categorized according to how they justify ethical judgments [https://ethics.journalism.wisc.edu/resources/ethics-in-a-nutshell/#theoretical ] and as such the particular ethical theory utilized can influence the decision made. This essay will therefore seek to examine the concepts of the common good and moral character and fundamental human virtue, their supportive ethical theories and explain how they are applied to making ethical decisions in businesses. Common Good Also referred to as the human good, public good or commonweal, the concept of the common good is one that has evolved over time. As human society developed, so too did the concept, as articulated by the philosophers of the day. Originating with the Greek Philosopher Aristotle who, on the topic wrote â€Å"Every skill and every enquiry, and similarly every action and rational choice, is thought to aim at some good; and so the good has been aptly described as that at which everything aims†. He went on to reason that â€Å"since political science employs the other sciences, and also lays down the laws about what we should do and refrain from, its end will include the ends of the others, and will therefore be the human good.† http://catdir.loc.gov/catdir/samples/cam032/99036947.pdf . Aristotle firstly explained his idea of the good, which according to his writings can then be understood to mean the purpose, reason, desire or benefit of things and actions. The idea of the good sets the premise for understanding the human good, the good that yields the most benefit to human existence. The human good, in Aristotle’s view, was the science of politics since it was the science charged with managing all other sciences and their respective ends for a single purpose; the betterment of the polity. The underlying premise of Aristotle’s definition of the common good is utility. It involves a multiplicity of agents working towards a single shared purpose that would  satisfy or be of benefit to all involved. This single purpose, shared by many, for the benefit of many is therefore what is understood to be the common good; a concept that shares an ideal that is similar to utilitarian theory as developed by Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mills. UTILITARIANISM AND THE COMMON GOOD The basic premise of utilitarianism is the achievement of happiness for the greatest sum of people [ethics in action Domenec Mele]. This principle places the interest of the many over the interest of the few and as such the rightness or wrongness of an act is based only on the perceived or expected outcomes of that act as it relates to the utility obtained. http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/cavalier/80130/part2/sect9.html Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mills were the main proponents of this ideology, and though they had differing views on which outcome of act (happiness vs. pleasure) was worth measuring in order to determine the rightness or wrongness of an act they both held that human wellbeing was salient. http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/cavalier/80130/part2/sect9.html Utilitarianism can be considered to be an ethical theory. It represents a grand idea; achievement of maximum utility for most, and at the same time, assesses the rightness or wrongness of an action through the lenses of this idea. The utilitarian principle can therefore be used to ethically guide or judge the ethicality of decisions and actions. Utilitarianism as an ethical theory acts in pursuance to the common good https://philosophynow.org/issues/64/Presidential_Decision-Making_Utilitarianism_vs_Duty_Ethics . As previously expressed, a single purpose, shared by many, for the benefit of many is therefore what is understood to be the common good. This concept is similar to utilitarianism as is evident by the mutual aim of achieving maximum utility for many. As such, decisions and actions resulting from utilitarian theory are made based on the consequences of those decision and actions, and how they affect majority with an aim to always increase utility. Utilitarianism as a theory may then be seen as the tool through which the common good may be achieved. https://philosophynow.org/issues/64/Presidential_Decision-Making_Utilitarianism_vs_Duty_Ethics COMMON GOOD OF BUSINESSES The theories of the common good and utilitarianism although initially conceptualized on a societal scale are also applicable to smaller groups that occur within society. Both concepts are formulated purely on the idea that it is best to achieve utility for the majority of stakeholders and as such the size of the group is not an important attribute for consideration when applying these ideas. Utilitarian as a theory and the common good as a concept can therefore be viewed as reducible and as such be applied to virtually any group in society including a business. The common good of a business is to seek particular goods through its activities http://www.iese.edu/es/files/Paper_Antonio%20Argando%C3%B1a_tcm5-36013.pdf . These goods are extrinsic, intrinsic and transcendent in nature and are used to provide utility to stakeholders by satisfying their needs http://www.iese.edu/research/pdfs/DI-0777-E.pdf . These goods are interdependent of each other, but through their collective contributions, work towards the achievement of the vision and mission of a business. The vision and mission of a business may then be considered to be that business’s common good [domenec mele bookl]. Interestingly however, a business seeking its own common good also works towards the common good of society [domenec mele bookl]. As suggested by Adam Smith’s metaphor of the invisible hand, a business in pursuit of its own interests tends to also promote the good of society as a whole [domenec mele bookl]. Therefore the activities of a business: 1. creating added economic value with justice and distributing it with equity 2. supplying useful goods and services efficiently and fairly 3. providing jobs, opportunities and organizational conditions in accordance with human dignity and human rights 4. Promoting the necessary relationships between the firm and its constitutive stakeholders, fostering rec iprocity, collaboration and cooperation among them 5. Striving for the continuity and sustainability of the firm and 6. being a good corporate citizen  may be viewed as contributing to not only its own common good but also to the common good of society. [domenec mele bookl] COMMON GOOD DECISION MAKING IN A BUSINESS A common good decision in a business is any decision that is pursuant its own common good and, at the same time, is aimed at achieving maximum utility for  the majority of stakeholders. This type of decision making applies a mission driven approach to corporate governance where the organization is seen as one entity that achieves multiple ends. In applying this approach the corporate governing body weighs the positive and negative consequences of an action with an aim towards increasing overall utility for the many with the business’s vision and mission as its main goal [domenec mele]. It would then stand to reason that a common good business decision would be any decision that is utilitarian in nature, which is also in accordance with any of the 6 mentioned activities of a business. Common good business decisions are made through the application of utilitarian theory. Utilitarian theory provides a straightforward method for making decisions that would provide the greatest benefits and the least harm to the business. To arrive at such a decision, one must firstly identify the each of the various options that can be chosen http://www.sme.ie/articles/business_ethics/thinking_ethically.pdf . After the options are identified, the foreseeable benefits and harms that may result from each option are determined http://www.sme.ie/articles/business_ethics/thinking_ethically.pdf . Lastly, one compares the options and chooses the option that provides the greatest benefits and the least amount of harm to the business http://www.sme.ie/articles/business_ethics/thinking_ethically.pdf . In the utilitarian view, an option chosen via this ethical theory is considered to be morally right http://www.sme.ie/articles/business_ethics/thinking_ethically.pdf and is therefore ethical. This decision making process may be likened to the cost benefit analysis, a commonly used business decision making tool. Although one may arrive at ethical decisions through the application of utilitarian theory, there are several disadvantages of using this ethical theory. Utilitarianism suggests that the decision maker assigns values to benefits and harms and subsequently compares these benefits and harms, this makes the utilitarian decision making process highly subjective http://www.sme.ie/articles/business_ethics/thinking_ethically.pdf . Predicting all the consequences of an action is difficult and as such it is possible that consequences which may cause great benefit or harm to the business are not factored into the decision making process. This method also, ignores the concept of justice and as such may cause several  particular groups to be repeatedly disadvantaged for the betterment of the organization. Because of the critiques of this ethical theory it can be reasoned tha t it is best used in situations that are amoral or situations where the rightness or wrongness of a decision is not in question. An example or an ideal amoral situation is a situation where all the available options are moral. The application of this ethical approach in such situations removes the need for the consideration of justice and therefore addresses a major flaw of the utilitarian process. MORAL CHARACTER AND FUNDAMENTAL HUMAN VIRTUES Another concept that informs ethical decision making is moral character and fundamental human virtues. The idea of Moral character and virtues has always been a prominent topic of philosophical discussion among ancient philosophers. The foundation of these discussions was centralized in the goodness of humans and in particular, trying to discern what makes a person good http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-character/ . As such, a person’s character became the logical starting point in the resolution of this issue http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-character/#WhyChaMat . One’s traits and actions is what determines one’s character. Character, which is understood to mean the assemblage of qualities that distinguishes one individual from another http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-character/#WhyChaMat is comprised of the relatively stable traits or behaviours that a person consistently exhibits. Although all of these traits are not moral nature, they may have a significant impact on a person’s moral characterhttp://www.iep.utm.edu/moral-ch/#SH1a . A person’s Moral Character is influenced by moral character traits and practical wisdom. A moral character trait is a disposition of character for which a person is morally responsible or is deserving of the resultant reactive attitudes. http://www.iep.utm.edu/moral-ch/#SH1a. Virtues, traits that are deserving of positive reactive attitudes such as praise or gratitude and vices, traits that are deserving of negative reactive attitudes, when combined with proper reasoning about the matter at hand, collectively inform moral character http://www.iep.utm.edu/moral-ch/#SH1a. In other words; virtues, vices and by extension moral character is not only influenced by the disposition of  character, but also by practical wisdom. http://www.iep.utm.edu/moral-ch/#SH1a Practical wisdom is an intellectual virtue that is required for the development of virtues of character. This intellectual virtue is acquired through learning general rules and practice. Throughout the course of one’ s life, we encounter situations that require reasoning to determine what actions are appropriate. It is through these experiences that practical wisdom is developed. Practical wisdom, when combined with â€Å"proper habits† fuels the development of virtues such as justice, courage and temperance. [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/] Justice, courage and temperance are virtues which provide us with the interior strength to act well [domenec mele]. Justice governs relationships and it regulates one’s inclination to possess, to share and to give whilst, courage, the virtue of preserving or pursuing what is good despite the obstacles, regulates one’s inclination to overcome the obstacles to doing â€Å"good†. Lastly temperance regulates one’s inclination towards pleasure and is that virtue which provides self-mastery and avoidance of immoderate attachments [domenec mele]. These virtues each have common characteristics of providing a self-regulatory feature and encouraging behaviours that are in keeping with human excellence. As such, these virtues are considered to be fundamental [domenec mele]. FUNDAMENTAL VIRTUES AND DEONTOLOGY The theory of deontology states we are morally obligated to act in accordance with a certain set of principles and rules regardless of outcome. Deontological theories holds that some acts are always wrong, even if the act leads to an admirable outcome and as such, in deontology the morality of an action is judged without regard for the outcome of that action. Deontology is based on the view of the human being having the unique capacity for rationality and it is exactly this ability that requires human beings to act in accordance with moral law or duty. http://sevenpillarsinstitute.org/morality-101/kantian-duty-based-deontological-ethics In the deontological view, morality and moral character is primarily a function of acting in accordance with duties or obligations, regardless of the consequences of acting in accordance with those duties http://www.iep.utm.edu/moral-ch/ . Deontological theory goes on to apply  this categorical imperative to making all decision â€Å"Act only on that maxim whereby thou canst at the same time will that it should become a universal law† http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/Cavalier/80130/part2/sect8.html . This categorical imperative is Kant’s only guideline to making decisions. Simply explained it states that one should decide on an action only if they agree that everyone else should perform that action in all the time. To be able to act in accordance with duty, fundamental virtues are required. Duties may be either perfect (precise, specifiable and enforceable) or imperfect (unspecific and unenforceable) in nature. Perfect duties require that one forgoes certain actions in order to be able to act in accordance with such a duty. Imperfect duties on the other hand, are duties to adopt certain ends and because of its unenforceable nature require self-mastery and strength of will. Continence therefore becomes a necessity for acting in accordance with duty. http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/moral-character/#Kan Continence or self-control requires the exercise of virtues, namely those of practical wisdom, temperance, courage and justice. http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.7.vii.html MORAL CHARACTER OF COMPANIES The ideas of moral character and fundamental virtues, though originally conceptualized to examine the ‘goodness’ of a person, can also be expanded to analyse the moral character of groups particularly businesses. Moral character is assessed as previously indicated by evaluating a person’s commitment to virtues or exercise of duty. The same method of assessment can be applied to a business. The moral character of a company may be determined through its duty based activities. The perfect duties of a company are those to which it is legally obligated whereas its imperfect duties deals are those where the company isn’t legally obligated but are duty bond to adopt particular ends. As such, the company’s adherence to the laws of the land, how the company treats with contractual agreements, examination of the company’s ethical policy or code and review of the company’s decision to ensure that they are in accordance with the company’s duties are the factors that influence the moral character of a company.

Priemgetallen

Priemgetallen Voorwoord Het stond vast, ons onderwerp werd priemgetallen. Onze kennis in verband met priemgetallen reikte niet verder dan de getallen die deelbaar zijn door 1 en zichzelf. En we vroegen ons af wat er nog meer over te zeggen valt. Na even te surfen op het internet bleek al snel dat er veel informatie te vinden was. Priemgetallen hebben vele wiskundigen door de geschiedenis geboeid. Zo heb je Euclides, Fermat, Mersenne, Euler. Dit waren stuk voor stuk grote wiskundigen die geboeid waren door priemgetallen en er velen jaren over nagedacht hebben. Het grote voordeel aan een onderzoekscompetentie (OZC) met twee maken, is dat je elk maar de helft moet doen. Maar met als nadeel dat je verschillende afspraken moet maken, het werk eerlijk moet verdelen en samenkomen om alles te overlopen en tot in de details uit te werken. Onze OZC is in vier hoofdstukken ingedeeld. Eerst hebben we het over de geschiedenis van de priemgetallen en over de wiskundigen die er mee bezig waren. Hoe men steeds nieuwe priem getallen blijft vinden zien we in hoofdstuk 2. Hoofdstuk 3 gaat over de eigenschappen van de priemgetallen. Zo hebben we eerst het vermoeden van Goldbach, de belangrijkste stelling bij de priemgetallen. Daarna gaan we het hebben over de soorten priemgetallen en priemgetallen met speciale eigenschappen. Tenslotte gaat hoofdstuk 4 over de toepassingen van priemgetallen, en dit blijkt vrij veel te zijn. We hopen dat het voor u een even interessante en leerrijke ontdekkingsreis door de priemgetallen zal worden als dat het voor ons was. Hoofdstuk 1 De geschiedenis van de priemgetallen Wanneer precies de priemgetallen ontstaan zijn, kan nooit met zekerheid gezegd worden. Het zou kunnen dat de Babylonià «rs de eerste ontdekkers waren. Wel staat vast dat rond 400 voor Christus, Pythagoras de priemgetallen had gedefinieerd als getallen alleen deelbaar door 1 en zichzelf. Daarmee staat hij bekend als de uitvinder van de priemgetallen. In 530 v.C. stichte hij in het zuiden van Italià « een gemeenschap die zich onder andere bezighield met wiskunde. Er was een grote interesse in natuurlijke getallen en hun eigenschappen. Natuurlijke getallen en hun verhoudingen waren volgens de gemeenschap de basis van het leven en het heelal. Dankzij hun grote interesse, ontdekten ze iets bijzonder over bepaalde getallen. Stel een getal voor als een aantal knopen. Je kan dan sommige getallen rangschikken als een rechthoek, zoals het getal 6 (een rechthoek van 2 op 3 knopen). Er zijn getallen die je onmogelijk kan rangschikken als een rechthoek, zoals het getal 5. Er werd zo het verschil gemaakt tussen de rechtlijnige en de rechthoekige getallen. Deze rechtlijnige getallen worden nu priemgetallen genoemd. Rond 300 v.C. kwam Euclides, à ©Ãƒ ©n van de grootste wiskundigen uit de oudheid. Hij schreef een 13-delig werk De Elementen, waarin onder andere een bewijs staat dat er oneindig veel priemgetallen bestaan. Bewijs: Veronderstel dat er een grootste priemgetal pn bestaat. Dan maken we een lijst van alle priemgetallen: 2, 3, 5,,pn. Definieer dan N = 2, 3, 5, , pn. N + 1 is niet deelbaar door 2 want N is dat wel. De rest is 1. N + 1 is niet deelbaar door 3 want N is dat wel. Ook hier is de rest 1. N + 1 is niet deelbaar door 5, 7,,pn. De rest is telkens 1. Als N + 1 niet deelbaar is dan moet N + 1 zelf priem zijn. Als het wel deelbaar is, dan bestaat er een priemgetal p dat N + 1 deelt maar dat niet was opgenomen in de lijst, dus moet dat priemgetal p groter zijn dan pn. Hierdoor is er dus geen grootste priemgetal en zijn de priemgetallen oneindig. In 200 v.C. werd De Zeef van Erastosthenes (zie 2.4.1) beschreven en daarna bleef het een aantal eeuwen stil rond priemgetallen. In de 16de eeuw veronderstelde Pierre Fermat dat 22n- 1 enkel priemgetallen opleverde. Indien n een priemgetal voorstelde. Marin Mersenne dacht hetzelfde over 2n 1. In 1753 toonde Goldbach aan dat geen enkele formule voldoet om alle priemgetallen te definià «ren. Vanaf de 19de eeuw werd er intensief op zoek gegaan naar grote priemgetallen en de mogelijkheden om ze toe te passen in de samenleving. Hoofdstuk 2 Het zoeken naar priemgetallen Welke getallen zijn priem? De definitie: Een priemgetal is een natuurlijk getal dat slechts 2 verschillende delers heeft. Die delers zijn 1 en het getal zelf. In het begin is het simpel. Je kan getallen à ©Ãƒ ©n voor à ©Ãƒ ©n gaan uitproberen. Zijn ze niet deelbaar door een ander getal dan 1 en zichzelf, dan is het een priemgetal. Zo zijn 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97 alle priemgetallen kleiner dan 100. Veel mensen vragen zich af waarom 1 ook niet gewoonweg een priemgetal is. Natuurlijk heeft 1 maar à ©Ãƒ ©n deler en geen twee. Dan waarom is de definitie niet gewoon een natuurlijk getal dat enkel gedeeld kan worden door 1 en zichzelf? Wel hierdoor zou de hoofdstelling van de rekenkunde (Elk natuurlijk getal valt te ontbinden in priemfactoren op juist à ©Ãƒ ©n manier) niet meer gelden. Een natuurlijk getal zou dan op oneindig veel manieren kunnen worden geschreven als een product van priemgetallen. Eà ©n voor à ©Ãƒ ©n de getallen gaan uitproberen om na te gaan of ze priem zijn is na een tijdje toch vrij vervelend. Het zou daarom wel handig zijn een patroon in een lijst van priemgetallen te herkennen. Helaas is er tot op het heden geen enkel goede formule gevonden. Euler, in de 18de eeuw, vond de formule f(x) = x ² + x + 41 en alle f(x) zijn priem. Maar het werkt enkel voor x∈(0 t/m. 39). De principià «le hoofdtheorie De principià «le hoofdtheorie houdt in dat de kans een getal x priem is, ongeveer gelijk is aan 1/ln(x), voor een x groter dan rond de 5000. Als x rond het getal 10000 ligt, dan is de kans dat het priem is ongeveer 1/9. Ligt een getal ergens bij de 1.000.000.000 dan is de kans ongeveer 1/21. Dit betekent dat de priemgetallen zeldzamer worden naarmate we kijken naar grotere getallen. Mersenne-getallen Marin Mersenne onderzocht in het begin van de 17de eeuw ook de priemgetallen en hij probeerde net zoals Fermat een formule op te stellen. Ook hij is er niet in geslaagd, maar hij heeft wel ander belangrijk werk verricht. Hij was de eerste die zich volledig toelegde op de formule Mp = 2p -1, waarin p priem is. Euler had deze formule opgesteld in De Elementen. Deze formule werkt niet altijd. Toch is al jarenlang het grootst bekende priemgetal altijd een Mersenne-priemgetal geweest. Vanaf juni 2009 zijn er 47 Mersenne-priemgetallen bekend. Het grootst bekende priemgetal is 243112609 -1. Het was het eerste bekende priemgetal met meer dan 10 miljoen cijfers! De vlugge testen De zeef van Erastosthenes De zeef van Eratosthenes is de oudste methode voor het vinden van priemgetallen. Ze is ontstaan circa 240 voor Christus. Het werkt heel simpel. Je schrijft bijvoorbeeld alle getallen op van 2 tot en met 120 Dan nemen we het eerste getal, 2, en arceren we alle veelvouden van dit getal, groter dan het getal zelf in het rood. We nemen nu het volgende, nog niet gearceerde getal, 3, en arceren alle veelvouden van 3 in het groen. De veelvouden van 4 zijn reeds gearceerd dus kunnen we deze overslaan. Daarna arceren we alle veelvouden van 5 (blauw), van 7(geel) en van 9 (groen) De resterende getallen arceren we in het paars en dit zijn de priemgetallen van 1 t/m. 120 Met deze methode kan je alle priemgetallen t/m. n achterhalen door alle veelvouden t/m. n te arceren. Dit valt ook te bewijzen: Stel dat de zeef maar van 2 t/m 100 gaat. Stel dan dat er toch een samengesteld getal x ≠¤ 100 nog niet gearceerd is. Omdat x samengesteld is, geldt x = a.b , met a ≠¤ 100 of b ≠¤ 100. (Als a en b beide groter zijn dan 100 , is a.b = x immers groter ( 100) ²=100). x Is dus een veelvoud van een getal kleiner dan 100, Al deze veelvouden hebben we gearceerd. Elk niet gearceerd getal kleiner dan 100 kan dus niet samengesteld zijn, en moet een priemgetal zijn. Het ontbinden in priemfactoren Euclides bewees eveneens in De Elementen dat elk natuurlijk getal te ontbinden valt in priemfactoren op juist à ©Ãƒ ©n manier (als we de volgorde verwaarlozen). Dit wordt ook wel de hoofdstelling van de rekenkunde genoemd. Valt een natuurlijk getal niet te ontbinden in priemfactoren, dan is het getal priem. Bijvoorbeeld met het getal 211. Je kijkt of het deelbaar is door 2,3,5,7,11 en 13. Omdat 17 > 211mag je bij 13 stoppen. Het getal 221 is niet deelbaar door deze 6 priemgetallen, dus is het zelf priem. Deze methode wordt alleen gebruikt voor getallen met maximum 25 cijfers. Fermat In de 17de eeuw stelde Pierre de Fermat dat elk getal van de vorm Fn = 22n+ 1 (met n ∈ N een priemgetal is. Echter in 1732 zei Euler dat dit onzin is. Het werkt enkel voor n = 0 t/m 4. Je hebt enkel 2 proefdelingen nodig om deze factor te vinden. Euler toonde aan dat elke deler van een Fermat-getal Fn met n > 2 de vorm 2n+2.k + 1 heeft. In het geval van F(5) is dat 128.k + 1. De getallen 129, 385 en 513 zijn niet priem dus gaan we 257 en 641 uitproberen, met succes. Waarschijnlijk zijn alleen de eerste 5 Fermat-getallen werkelijk priemgetallen. Fermats kleine stelling daarentegen is van meer nut. Het houdt in als p een priemgetal is, dan geldt voor ieder geheel getal a dat ap = a(mod p) Als het priemgetal p geen deler is van a, dan heeft ap-1/p een rest van 1. Stel dat je een bepaald getal a hebt. Als je een priemgetal p kunt vinden waarvoor ap-1/p niet als rest 1 oplevert, dan is a deelbaar door p en dus samengesteld. Bijvoorbeeld: a=4 en p=5; dan is 1024/5 = 1020 + 4. De rest is 4, dus is het getal 1024 samengesteld en niet priem. Jammer genoeg werkt de stelling niet altijd in de andere richting, maar door deze kleine stelling van Fermat kunnen we al meteen een hele hoop getallen elimineren als priemgetallen. De andere getallen kunnen daarna verder gecontroleerd worden. PRPs De hedendaagse computertests hebben hun snelheid niet alleen te danken aan de snelle hardware, maar veeleer aan de software. Men gaat eerst een aantal waarschijnlijkheidstesten uitvoeren. Ze gaan op zoek naar pseudo-priemen. De getallen die deze testen doorstaan. De simpelste test werkt met de kleine stelling van Fermat. (zie 2.4.3) Het omgekeerde van die stelling is niet altijd geldig. Als voor een gehele a en k geldt dat ak = a(mod k) dan is k niet noodzakelijk een priemgetal. Vroeger was elke k een pseudo-priemgetal. Nu is het alleen nog maar een pseudo-priemgetal als het nog meer testen doorstaat en toch geen priemgetal blijkt te zijn. Een getal k dat in een test slaagt waarin a=2 noemt met een 2-PRP (waarschijnlijk priemgetal, een vertaling van probable prime). Als de test slaagt met a=3 noemt met het een 3-PRP enzovoort. Omdat deze priemtesten veel sneller verlopen dat de exacte controles, gaat men er meerdere na elkaar uitvoeren. Men begint bij a=2, dan a=3 enzoverder. Als een getal k positief test over verschillende testen, dan is het waarschijnlijk dat het ook een priemgetal is. Bijvoorbeeld: Een 2-PRP met k=341. Het blijkt geen priemgetal te zijn want het is deelbaar door 11 en 31. Er zijn 1.091.987.405 priemgetallen kleiner dan 25.000.000.000, maar slechts 21.853 pseudo- 2-PRP priemgetallen. Dus een getal k kleiner dan 25 miljard, die in een 2-PRP-test slaagt, in 99.998% van de gevallen ook werkelijk priem is. En hoe groter k wordt, hoe groter de slaagkans wordt. SPRPs Wanneer k het getal is dat we onderzoeken of het priem is, d oneven is en s positief. Dan is in k 1 = 2s.d , k een sterk waarschijnlijk priemgetal (vertaling van strong probable prime) als aan à ©Ãƒ ©n van de volgende condities voldaan wordt op basis a. ad = 1(mod k) (ad)2r = -1(mod k) waarbij r positief is en r Ook hier zijn alle getallen k > 1 die niet in de test slagen, niet priem. En de getallen die wel slagen kunnen priem zijn. Deze waarden voor k zijn dus niet priem. Zo een SPRP-test is redelijk snel, zeker als het gecombineerd wordt met het zoeken naar de kleinste priemfactoren. Het is aangetoond dat dergelijke testen in 75% van de gevallen priemfactoren oplevert. Op zichzelf is een SPRP-test dus tamelijk zwak, maar als we enkele van deze testen combineren, maken we een krachtige test voor kleine getallen k, die priemheid aantonen. Wat wilt zeggen dat een getal zeker priem is of zeker niet. Bijvoorbeeld: Als k k priem. Als k k priem. Als k k priem. Als k k priem. Als k k priem. Als k k priem. Deze resultaten geven ons een manier om een zeer snelle priemheidstest te maken. We beginnen met het zoeken naar de kleinste priemfactoren, daarna voeren we SPRP-testen uit op basis 2, basis 3, tot wanneer een van de bovenstaande criteria is bereikt. Bijvoorbeeld, als k De klassieke testen Merkwaardig is dat de grootste priemgetallen tot nu toe gevonden, p-1 of p+1, zeer makkelijk te ontbinden zijn. Dit komt omdat dit priemgetallen zijn waarvan het gemakkelijk is om te bewijzen dat ze priem zijn. Bij deze klassieke testen kunnen we aantonen dat een getal priem is. Dit zijn dus geen waarschijnlijkheidstesten, maar bewijzen van de priemheid. Stelling 1 (Lucas-Kraitchik-Lehmer) Lucas heeft op het einde van de 19de eeuw de kleine stelling van Fermat omgevormd tot een praktische test, die later versterkt werd door Kraitchik en Lehmer. Stel n > 1. Als voor iedere priemfactor q van n-1 er een natuurlijke a bestaat zodat an-1 = 1(mod n) a(n-1)/q ≠  1(mod n) dan is n priem. Dit is zowat de basis van alle moderne priemtesten. Stelling 2 (Pocklington) Stelling 1 heeft een volledige ontbinding in priemfactoren nodig van n-1. Pocklington had daar een oplossing voor. Stel n-1 = qkr waar q priem is en r niet deelt. Als er een natuurlijk getal a bestaat zodat an-1 = 1(mod n) en de g.g.d. van(an-1q- 1,n) = 1, dan heeft iedere priemfactor q van n de vorm qkr + 1. Stel dan n-1 = FR, waarbij F > R, g.g.d. (F,R) = 1 en de ontbinding van F gekend is. Als voor iedere priemfactor q van F er een a > 1 bestaat zodat an-1=1(mod n) g.g.d. (an-1q- 1,n) = 1 dan is n priem. Er kunnen verschillende a gebruikt worden voor ieder priemgetal q. Deze formules zijn de basis van de bekendere formules, zoals die van Pepin en Proth. Pepins test Pepin heeft in 1877 een formule gevonden die Fermat-getallen (van de vorm 22n+1) op de priemheid test. Stel dat Fn het n-de Fermat-getal is met n > 1. Fn is priem als en slechts als 3(Fn-1)/2 = 1(mod Fn). Bijvoorbeeld: F2 = 222+ 1 = 17 Dan is 3(17-1)/2 = 38 =6561 = 1(mod 17) Want (6561+1)/17 = 386 Proths test Proth maakte in 1878 de formule: n =2kh +1 met 2k > h. Als er een natuurlijk getal a bestaat zodat a(n-1)/2 = -1(mod n), dan is n priem. Lucas-Lehmertest Om na te gaan of een Mersenne-getal, een priemgetal is kan je de Lucas-Lehmer test gebruiken. Als p een priemgetal (groter dan 2) is, is het Mersenne-getal 2p -1 priem, als S(p-1) deelbaar is door 2p -1, waarbij S(n+1) = S(n) ² -2 en S(1)=4. Bijvoorbeeld: Als we willen weten of M3 = 7 een priemgetal is, dan zoeken we S(2).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  S(2) = S(1) ²-2   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  = 4 ²-2   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  = 14 Dan controleren we of 14 deelbaar is door 2p -1 = 7. Dat klopt dus 7 is een priemgetal. De theorie voor de test heeft Lucas uitgevonden rond 1870. Hij heeft dan de test vereenvoudigd in 1930 tot wat hierboven uitgelegd staat. Voor heel grote Mersenne-getallen wordt het wel moeilijk de test uit te voeren. Zelfs moderne computers kunnen slecht overweg met zeer grote getallen. APR, APRT-CL In 1970 begon Williams samen met enkele anderen op een andere manier de priemheid te testen. Ze gingen nu niet meer de factoren van n-1 gebruiken, maar factoren van n2+1, n ²+n+1, n ²-n+1 en nm 1 waarbij soms m heel groot was, zoals 5040. Elk priemgetal q waarvoor q 1 een deler is van 5040 (welke n niet deelt) moet dan n5040 1 delen. Er is aangetoond dat er altijd een m is waarvoor geldt dat m q die nm 1 delen met q 1 een deler van m op zijn minst een product geven dat gelijk is aann. Zo goed als altijd ligt m rond de 100.000.000 voor een n die een 3000-tal cijfers bevat. GIMPS GIMPS (Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search) is een project waarbij men zoekt naar steeds grotere Mersenne-priemgetallen. Dankzij GIMPS kunnen we enorm grote getallen controleren op priemheid, doordat het werk wordt verdeeld onder een aantal deelnemers. Het project heeft tot op het heden 12 Mersenne-priemgetallen gevonden. Iedereen die een computer heeft en over internet beschikt kan deelnemen. Er is wel veel tijd voor nodig, à ©Ãƒ ©n priemheidstest kan gemakkelijk een hele maand duren. GIMPS is een efficià «nt systeem, het zoeken naar Mersenne-getallen gebeurt in verschillende stappen. Het aanmaken van een lijst met priemgetallen (want de formule die ze gebruiken is 2p-1 met p als priemgetal) Het zoeken naar de priemfactoren, wat op verschillende manieren kan gebeuren. Bij GIMPS zullen ze de exponent eerst omzetten naar het binair talstelsel. Bijvoorbeeld: 223 1 wordt getest en wordt daarbij gedeeld door 47. In het binair is 23 = 10111. Daarna passen ze de volgende werkwijze toe (het binair rekenen): De Pollard-methode om te ontbinden in priemfactoren. De P-1-methode werkt nogal simpel. In stadium 1 kiezen ze een vaste B1. Als q = 2kp + 1, dan zal het P-1-ontbinden in factoren deze factor q bepalen zolang alle factoren van k kleiner zijn dan B1. Dan wordt x = 3E.2.P berekend. Daarna controleren ze de g.g.d. van(x 1,2p -1) om te zien of er een factor is gevonden. In stadium 2 gebruiken ze een ander vast getal, B2. Hier zal de factor q gevonden worden als k exact à ©Ãƒ ©n factor heeft tussen B1 en B1 en alle andere factoren van k kleiner zijn dan B1. (Dit stadium maakt gebruik van zeer veel geheugen) GIMPS gebruikt deze methode om de grote factoren te vinden. Bijvoorbeeld 22944999 1 dat deelbaar is door 314584703073057080643101377. B1 en B2 worden gekozen door kansberekening. De Lucas-Lehmer test. (zie : 2.5.2.2) Om een getal te controleren zijn er heel veel vermenigvuldigingen nodig. Er worden zorgvuldig algoritmes geschreven die gebruikt worden om zeer snel te vermenigvuldigen. De kans dat zo een Lucas-Lehmer test succesvol een priemgetal ontdekt is ongeveer 1/80000. De zoektocht naar het grootste priemgetal Sommige mensen hebben er een hobby van gemaakt steeds op zoek te gaan naar het grootste priemgetal. De traditie is al gaande sinds 300 v.C. toen Euclides zijn werk De Elementen schreef. Hij merkte op dat de perfecte getallen (positieve getallen gelijk aan de som van zijn delers) nogal dicht lagen bij de priemgetallen van de vorm 2p -1 voor een priemgetal p. Vanaf toen begon de jacht op de Mersenne-priemgetallen. Grote getallen van deze vorm zijn al bestudeerd door grote wiskundigen zoals Fermat, Mersenne, Euler, Lucas, Leibniz enzovoort. Veel mensen willen de eer om hun naam bij het lijstje te voegen. De traditie om grote Mersenne-priemgetallen te vinden zal zeker blijven duren. En er valt heel wat meer met mee te bereiken. Er zijn programmas om priemgetallen te zoeken bij het testen van hardware. Dit wordt al gedaan sinds het ontstaan van de computer. Zo werden stukjes software van het GIMPS project (Zie 2.7) gebruikt door Intel om de processors Pentium II en Pentium Pro te testen alvorens ze verscheept werden. De software dat priemgetallen berekent, belast de processor meer dan andere programmas doen en duurt niet lang om uit te voeren. Als je een heel groot priemgetal invoert, moet de processor een miljoen berekeningen uitvoeren om na te gaan of het wel klopt. En hoe meer priemgetallen er gevonden worden, hoe meer de verdeling ervan kan worden bestudeerd en worden begrepen. Er is al veel onderzoek gedaan naar patronen in de verdeling van priemgetallen. Tevens is het allemaal niet voor niks. Er wordt een serieuze geldprijs van minstens $ 150.000 uitgereikt aan degene die als eerste het priemgetal vindt bestaande uit 100-miljoen cijfers. De eerste die er eentje kan vinden bestaande uit een miljard cijfers, krijgt zelfs een prijs van minstens $ 250.000. Het grootste priemgetal is dus heel bruikbaar en gewild. Hoofdstuk 3 Een priemwereld vol verrassingen Inleiding Zoals al gebleken is zijn er oneindig veel priemgetallen maar kunnen we deze nog onderverdelen in aparte groepen? Ja, er zijn zelfs zeer veel onderverdelingen met elk hun specifieke eigenschappen. Zo heb je de palindroompriemgetallen, Mersennepriemgetallen, Illegale priemgetallen, Maar eerst beginnen we met het uitleggen van enkele vermoedens in verband met priemgetallen. Enkele vermoedens Inleiding Er zijn vele stellingen in verband met priemgetallen. Deze gaan van zeer simpel tot echte breinbrekers. We vooral de meest bekende en de meest belangrijke stellingen voor de priemgetallen bespreken. En daarom beginnen we ook met de stelling die van het grootste belang was voor de priemgetallen, namelijk het vermoeden van Goldbach. Het vermoeden van Goldbach Goldbach was een Duitse wiskundige en is in 1690 geboren in Kà ¶ningsberg. Hij werd zelfs leraar bij de Tsaar in Moskou omdat hij een zeer belangrijke wiskundige was in zijn tijd. Deze job gaf hem dan ook de mogelijkheid veel te reizen zodat hij overal in contact kwam met andere belangrijke wiskundigen zoals Euler, Leibniz. Hij bleef in contact met deze geleerden door middel van brieven. Ook het begin van zijn vermoeden schreef hij in 1792 in naar Euler. In deze brief schreef hij dit vermoeden: Als een geheel getal n > 5 is dan kan dit getal geschreven worden als de som van 3 priemgetallen. Bij deze 3 priemgetallen kan herhaling optreden. Wat wel vreemd is aan het hele verhaal is dat Euler een brief terugschreef met daarin de stelling dat dit vermoeden geldt voor ieder getal n > 2 maar toch is het vermoeden enkel bekend als het vermoeden van Goldbach. Euler beschouwde de stelling van Goldbach als waar maar hierbij was de stelling nog niet bewezen. Zelfs nu is de stelling nog niet bewezen desondanks er als publiciteitsstunt 1 miljoen dollar aan te verdienen was. Maar dit betekent niet dat er geen belangrijke ontdekkingen zijn gedaan. In 1939 bewees Schnirelmann dat je elk even getal groter dan 2 geschreven kan worden als een som van ten meeste 300000 priemgetallen. In 1995 bewees Ramarà © dat een som van maximum 7 priemgetallen meer dan genoeg is. Het oude vermoeden van Goldbach Dit is het vermoeden dat Goldbach als eerst vermelde in zijn brief naar Euler: als een geheel getal n > 5 is dan kan dit geschreven worden als de som van drie priemgetallen. Dit vermoeden wordt ook wel het oneven vermoeden van Goldbach genoemd. Dit oneven vermoeden is eigenlijk een zwakkere vorm van het eigenlijke vermoeden. Want we kunnen bij n > 2 telkens het priemgetal toevoegen zodat we elk oneven getal n > 5 bekomen maar het oorspronkelijke vermoeden volgt niet uit het oneven vermoeden van Goldbach. Het oneven vermoeden staat al veel dichter bij het bewijs dan het oorspronkelijke want in 1937 bewees Vinogradov dat dit vermoeden geldt voor alle voldoende grote oneven getallen. Het probleem was wel dat Vinogradov niet wist hoe groot voldoende groot nu juist was. In 1956 kon men uiteindelijk op voldoende groot een getal plakken, namelijk groter dan 3315. De waarde die gelijk is aan voldoende groot is het getal n > 1043000 bewezen door Wang. De exacte waarde zal men pas kunnen vinden als men computers kan ontwikkelen die dit soort berekeningen aankunnen. Nog meer vermoedens We zullen vlug nog even enkele vermoedens vermelden: Voor ieder even getal 2n bestaan er oneindig veel priemgetalkoppels waarvoor het verschil tussen beide priemgetallen gelijk is aan 2n. Maar indien n = 1 dan hebben we te maken met een priemtweeling en bij n = 3 dan moet het verschil 6 zijn en is het priemgetalkoppel een koppel sexy priemgetallen. (zie 3.7.2) Ieder even nummer is een verschil van 2 priemgetallen. Priemgaten Opvallend bij priemgetallen is dat er geen logische volgorde zit in de opeenvolging. Hoe verder we gaan zoeken naar grote priemgetallen hoe moeilijkere deze te vinden zijn, want ze komen dan steeds minder voor. De gaten tussen twee priemgetallen worden steeds groter hoe verder je gaat. Deze gaten oftewel priemgaten zijn de ruimtes tussen 2 opeenvolgende priemgetallen. De grootte van deze gaten wordt dus bepaald door het verschil van de 2 opeenvolgende priemgetallen. Al een gehele tijd hebben wiskundigen een patroon proberen te ontdekken bij de opeenvolging van priemgetallen door de priemgaten te bestuderen. Priemgaten hebben geen beperking in grootte want als n ≠¥ 2 de minimale grootte is dan zijn de volgende gatallen allemaal samengesteld: (n + 1)! + 2, (n + 1)! + 3, (n + 1)! + 4, , (n+ 1)! + (n + 1) Vb. n = 2 dan zijn de eerste 3 getallen van het priemgat 8,9,10 Deze formule is niet alleen nuttig om het priemgat met grootte n te geven maar ook om het priemgat te geven met minimale grootte n. Hierdoor is de aanwezigheid van minimum n ontbindbare getallen verzekerd. Wat wel nog een probleem vormt is de mannier om de grootte van een priemgat te berekenen. Want men gebruikt het eerste priemgetal a en het tweede priemgetal b om de priemgaten te berekenen door priemgetal a af te trekken van priemgetal b. Het probleem is dat men oftewel bij de uitkomst 1 moet optellen of niet, want zonder 1 toe te voegen wordt het priemgetal a ook meegerekend met het priemgat. Illegale priemgetallen In 2001 ontdekte Phil Carmody dat de gezipte broncode C, wat men op computers gebruikt om DVDs te decoderen, overeenkomt met een priemgetal. Hij ging als volgt te werk: Eerst comprimeerde hij de C-Code met het computerprogramma Gzip. Het getal wat nu weergeven werd in het verkleinde bestand was priem. Er bestaan dus heel wat illegale priemgetallen. Hieronder volgt het allereerste illegale priemgetal, gevonden door Phil Carmody. Later zette Joerg Dietrich het priemgetal om zodat deze kon worden weergegeven in baseparen. Hij kwam een Dna-sequentie uit die 43016 basen telt. Hij kwam ook tot volgende vaststelling: het zinloos zou zijn om een wet te maken tegen het gebruik van het priemgetal want als men ooit het priemgetal in ons DNA mocht vinden dan zouden 6 miljard mensen de wet overtreden. Hier is een klein deeltje van de Dna-sequentie: Merkwaardige priemgetallen Congruente priemgetallen Een priemgetal dat een regelmatige figuur vormt noemt men een congruent priemgetal. Een regelmatige figuur oftewel een regelmatige n-hoek zoals een vierkant of een gelijkzijdige driehoek. Het middelste getal of centrum vormt dan het priemgetal omgeven door cijfers van binnen naar buiten toe. Als voorbeeld geven we volgende regelmatige figuren gevormd door een priemgetal. Vb. 1 met priemgetallen Palindroompriemgetallen Priemgetallen die je zowel naar voor als naar achter hetzelfde leest noemt men palindroompriemgetallen. Als voorbeeld kunnen we volgende priemgetallen gebruiken: 2, 11, 101, Maar ook gigantische priemgetallen zoals 14 ·10^6343-4199. Dit priemgetal telt 6343 cijfers en dit is gewoon heel de tijd 1 en 4 afgewisseld: 14 ·10^6343-4199 = 1414141414141414141 Zo heb je ook het grootste palindroompriemgetal van 3 cijfers namelijk 717. Er zijn ook priemgetallen die de decimale loop van p weergeven: 3, 31, 314159, Het 4de palindroompriemgetal bevat al 38 cijfers en het 5de al 500. Nog een zeer mooi palindroompriemgetal is het volgende: 923032900000000 00000000000006660000000000 00000000000000009230329 Het bestaan uit 666 en wordt omgeven door 32 nullen en 9230329 aan elke kant. En nog wat eigenschappen van dit palindroompriemgetal: 9230329 is exact het 666ste palindroompriemgetal 666.32 = 21312 wat een palindroompriemgetal is. 666.64 = 42624 wat ook een palindroompriemgetal is. De palindroompriemgetallen zijn nog verder ingedeeld zo heb je: De Titanic-palindroompriemgetallen gevonden door Samuel Yates: deze bevatten minimum 1000 cijfers. Samuel Yates zei dat dit een zeer lage grens is en later bleek waarom. Doordat men nu verder kon rekenen met machines werd de onderverdeling Gigantische palindroompriemgetallen gemaakt: dit zijn palindroompriemgetallen met ten minste 10 000 cijfers. De Megapalindroonpriemgetallen: deze bevatten ten minste 1 000 000 getallen en er waren er in 2003 slechts 4 gekend. Een pandigitaal palindroompriemgetal: bijvoorbeeld 1023456987896543201 Als we het getal in 2 verdelen in het midden en links en rechts het midden meetellen dan hebben we elk getal 1 keer. Een zeer bijzondere eigenschap van de palindroompriemgetallen is dat ze allen oneven zijn buiten 11 want moest men een palindroomgetal vinden dat even is dan is dit misschien wel palindroom maar zeker niet priem. Nog een palindroompriemgetaleigenschap is de palindroompriempiramide: Hier begin je met een priemgetal bij de volgende rij plak je aan beide kanten deze

Genesis And Rise Of Islamic Fundamentalism Religion Essay

Genesis And Rise Of Islamic Fundamentalism Religion Essay Introduction Religious fundamentalism is not a new term rather it is as old as the religions itself. The world has seen, felt and suffered due religious fundamentalism in some way or the other since time immemorial. The same is true for Islamic fundamentalism. Islam, however, has off late been more associated with fundamentalism than any other religion in the world. Fundamentalism in Islam is also referred as Islamofascism. The term Islamofascism is included in the New Oxford American Dictionary, defining it as a controversial term equating some modern Islamic movements with the European fascist movements of the early twentieth century. The term is used in this manner by writers like Stephen Schwartz and Christopher Hitchens, to describe Islamist extremists, including terrorist groups such as al Qaeda. William Safire makes particular note of Hitchens as a popularizer of the word, though Hitchens declines credit for coining it.  [1]   Susceptibility of Islam to Fundamentalism Islam is like any other religion; however, it is associated with fundamentalism than any other religion in the world. Fundamentalism in Islam is the result of its origin. It came into being in 500 AD when Christianity and Judaism were in its full blossom. Quran-The Holy Book of Islam is a philosophical yet one of the most exhaustive set of rule imposing strict guidelines for day to day functioning for its followers making Islam more susceptible to fundamentalism. The philosophical roots of Islamic fundamentalism are largely the result of a conscious attempt to revive and restate the theoretical relevance of Islam in the modern world. The word Islam means submission, or the total surrender of oneself to God. Therein lays its strength as well as weakness. Total surrender to God imparts spectacular potency to religious faith wherein no questions are asked regarding its convictions or statute. Equally, it leads to blind following in the interpretations of various diktats as pronounced by the Ulemas or Islamic scholars. The empowerment of Islam, which is believed to be Gods plan for mankind, is sacred and therefore may be (interpreted by some as must be) pursued by any means.  [2]   Reasons for Fundamentalism in Islam Colonialism and Western Dominance. Ever since Islam came into existence, it continued to flourish and was widely accepted in the Middle East, Africa, Central and East Asia. It reached its Zenith by 16th Century. However, in 17th and 18th Century Western Powers, started colonialism towards East resulting in Western cultural dominance over other religions and regions in all spheres of life. Islam too was greatly affected by the imperialistic rule of West and subtle but certain downfall of Islam commenced. The famous Indian poet Muhammad Iqbal (1877-1938) vividly expressed the commonly held view of the soulless multilayered Western civilization in its varied manifestations of capitalism, communism, secularism, and liberalism, draining Islam of its inherent vitality. This created a feeling of anti-Westernism and nostalgia for the glorious past; which is the major contributory factor for the contemporary fundamentalist movements. Response to Overpowering Pace of Modern Revolutionization. Mr Modernization and technology has been the biggest boon for the society. But with it also came the evils of cultural changes of nuclear family, materialism and degeneration of social values. In Mr Volls opinion Islamic fundamentalism is a direct response to rapid modernization and cultural changes that threaten to dilute Islamic identity by a syncretistic mix with un-Islamic elements. Urbanization, in addition to diminishing social and cultural value has also resulted in high unemployment, steep rise in poverty and sharp inequalities in wealth distribution. These overwhelmingly and rapid economic, social and cultural changes have resulted in an acute sense of dislocation, identity loss, alienation and anomie and are the social-psychological background to the Islamic resurgence. Reaction to Failed Islamic Liberalism. Islam is governed by stringent and strict laws as written in the Holy Koran and its followers are expected to adhere them in in their daily life in totality. It is this facet of Islam which makes it more radical than any other religion in the world. Likewise, Islamic radicalization in part is a reaction to the failure of Islamic liberalism in the late 19th and 20th centuries. While the radicalists fight both with the modernists, who recognize a broad elucidation of Scripture and assume Western ethics, and also the liberals who favor a democratic system of governance on the Western model. Radicalists disapprove these views and look for a come back to the original foundation of Islam, while reapplying them to the modern milieu. Crisis of Frail Authority of Secular Nations and Governments. Another cause is the persistent crisis expressed by the weak legitimacy of the very idea of the nation-state as well as of the existing secular regimes. This crisis is evident in the pervasiveness of autocratic regimes and in the continuing segmentation of society along tribal, ethnic, and religious lines. The political, social, and economic failures of the secular state is seen as an important contributor to the rise of Islamic fundamentalism as a mass-based response demanding radical change. Fundamentalists tend to blame the modern secular nation-state and its Westernized elites for all the ills of society. Defeat of Islamic States Post World War II. Creation of Israel, defeat of Arab nations in 1967 and 1973 in the Arab-Israel Wars, dismemberment of Pakistan in 1971 and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 acted as catalysts in the spreading of Islamic fundamentalism. It gave Muslim world a sense of disappointment, disgrace, helplessness, and loss of self-worth. It developed in animosity and hostility against the local administration that botched to react to the need of their societies. It also resulted in the hatred aginst the superpowers which too failed to support the cause of Islamic states and saw in them an oppressor and aggressor. Modern Socio-Political Regimens. Modernization provided access to global education and new socio political equations. Secularism was one such thought that spurred Islamic fundamentalism; one of the reasons for promoting an Islamic awakening. Rise of the religious fundamentalism across various religious cultures was according to Jurgensmeyer (2001), that the radical religious groups rejected the liberal values of secular institutions. This was particularly considered, by the Islamic religious hierarchy, as the main cause of societys decline and loss of religious inspiration. These radicals also, refused to accept boundaries of secular society which keeps religion a private observance and not the public sphere which they thought were contrary to basic Islamiic tenets. Equally, the conservatives sought to restore religion as central to social life. They also saw foreign domination as a symptom of Muslim weakness, and its elimination as the key to Muslim power. Such domination could be a ttacked directly by jihad against foreigners.  [3]   Failure of Modern Institutions. Modernization in many countries did not yield requisite outcome. Modernization in these countries failed for host of reasons to include lack of infrastructure and stable government, illiteracy and wide spread unemployment. The failure of modernization in such state gave enough reason to the conservatives to force the established governments and convince the people to revert back to the basics of Islam and shun secularism and liberalization. Also the western liberal strategists failed to contain the religious overtures in the Islamic states, further bolstering the radicalists to adopt and enforce the fundamentalist Islam in its present form. The failure of liberal governments to revitalize the states gave people the option of reverting back to the Islamic values which if nothing else gave them the false sense of superiority and gave hope to bring back the lost glory to the so believed superior religion. This drew marked religious responses resulting in a spate of Islamic fundamentalist movements. Moreover, the failure of democratic and secular state to deliver further strengthened the case of conservatives giving rise to fundamentalist forces.  [4]   Conclusion At the end of the 20th century Islamic fundamentalists have become active participators in mainstream Muslim society all over the world, led by a new class of modern-educated elites. For many Muslims Islamic revivalism is a social rather than a political movement aimed at implementing a more Islamically oriented society. For most fundamentalists, however, the establishment of an Islamic system does necessitate the creation of an Islamic state, and the mainstream Islamic fundamentalist movements have become major actors within the system while the violent radicals continue to confront the state. The moderates demand participation as equals in the democratic process, while the extremists threaten violence and revolution.